Mada za sehemu hiiAnalyse literary criticism theoriesMada 3
- Examine the four traditional critical theories (mimetic, pragmatic, objective and expressive)
- Explain modern theories of literary criticism (formalism, Marxism, post-colonial, feminism, eco-criticism and social learning theory)
- Apply modern literary theories in critiquing a selected literary text
Modern Theories of Literary Criticism
Modern literary criticism builds upon traditional theories (mimetic, pragmatic, expressive, and objective) to provide frameworks for analysing literary texts from different perspectives. These theories emerged in the 20th century and address how literature reflects society, ideology, power structures, and human experience.
Definition and Origin
Formalism is a modern theory that emerged during the first half of the 20th century. It focuses on a text's formal elements rather than its content or the author's biography. The theory is closely related to aestheticism, which emphasised the beauty of literary texts.
Three critical movements shaped Formalism:
- Russian Formalism (1910s–1930s) – led by Viktor Shklovsky
- New Criticism (20th century) – emphasised close reading; proponents include I.A. Richards and T.S. Eliot
- Structuralism (1950s–1960s) – studied languages and later adapted for literature; proponents include Claude Levi-Strauss and Ferdinand de Saussure
Key Principles
- The primary focus of analysis is the text itself, examining its internal structure
- Form and style are inherent aspects of what a text means
- Close reading is essential to understanding a text
- The author's biography and intentions are less valued in analysis
Worked Example
In the poem "Have Life" by Emmanuel Lema, a formalist analysis examines:
- The structural pattern: parallel construction ("Solace or torment? / I choose torment")
- Figurative language: metaphor ("Life, game of choice")
- Word choice and rhythm contributing to the poem's meaning
The formalist would ask: How do these formal elements create meaning, rather than: What did the author intend?
Definition and Origin
Marxism is a materialist theory based on Karl Marx's criticism of the capitalist system. It interprets texts by measuring them against the concrete world and society. Marx viewed history as progressing through struggles between opposing forces—particularly the oppressed and the oppressors.
Key Principles
- The struggle for freedom is an endless process
- Literary texts depict class oppression, strife, and social inequality
- Texts serve to critique capitalistic systems
- The author's class and ideological positions influence their writing
- Texts may suggest possibilities for social revolution
Worked Example
In "May our People Triumph" by Patrice Lumumba, a Marxist analysis reveals:
- Class struggle: The poem addresses colonial exploitation of Africans ("Your gold he bartered for his worthless beads")
- Power dynamics: The coloniser controls resources and people
- Oppression: Africans were "driven... into the holds of ships" for slavery
- Superstructure: Religion ("They taught you in your psalms to glorify / Their Lord") served colonial interests
The poet calls for liberation and triumph, suggesting revolution as the path to change.
Definition and Origin
Post-colonial theory is a cultural, intellectual, political, and literary movement of the 20th and 21st centuries. It analyses the historical experiences of colonialism and challenges exploitative practices. From the 1450s to the 1950s, European powers colonised parts of the Americas, East Indies, India, and Africa.
Key Principles
- Re-examining the history of colonialism from the perspective of the colonised
- Analysing the economic, political, and cultural impact of colonialism
- Examining the representation of "othered" cultures
- Analysing issues of hybridity (identities belonging to both coloniser and colonised cultures)
- Perceiving marginality and 'otherness' as push factors for change
Worked Example
In Okot P'Bitek's "Song of Lawino," the lines:
"For all our young men / Were finished in the forest / 'Their manhood' was finished / In the class-rooms, / Their testicles / Were smashed / With large books"
This extract reveals:
- Cultural destruction: Western education ("large books") destroyed indigenous knowledge
- Colonial impact: The colonised were forced to abandon their identity
- Reclaiming identity: The speaker critiques colonial education systems
Definition and Origin
Feminism advocates for equal rights between men and women. The movement has evolved through four waves:
- First wave (19th–early 20th century) – focused on legal rights
- Second wave (1960s–1990s) – grew from civil rights movements
- Third wave (1990s) – informed by post-colonial and post-modern thinking
- Fourth wave (2010s–present) – uses online platforms to protest violence against women
Key Principles
- Examining gendered language in texts
- Analysing stereotypical or unconventional portrayals of female characters
- Studying works by female writers
- Examining how gender, class, and sexuality shape character depiction
- Critiquing gender oppression
Worked Example
In "The Joys of Motherhood" by Buchi Emecheta, a feminist analysis reveals:
- Gender roles: Women are defined by their relationships to men (wives, daughters)
- Patriarchal structures: Agbadi has multiple wives and controls women
- Women's agency: Ona resists male dominance by refusing to marry
- Cultural stereotypes: Women are expected to be submissive
The text shows how women are disempowered by social expectations while also showing individual resistance.
Definition and Origin
The term "eco-criticism" was coined by William Rueckert in 1978. It became popular in the USA in the late 1980s and in the UK in the early 1990s. The theory focuses on the relationship between literature, humans, and the earth.
Key Principles
- Literature represents shortfalls and contradictions within nature
- Examining how humans and the natural environment interact
- Analysing environmental degradation in texts
- Reintegrating nature into mainstream literature
Worked Example
In David Rubadiri's "An Africa Thunderstorm," the poem presents:
- Nature's power: "Clouds come hurrying with the wind / Turning sharply / Here and there / Like a plague of locusts"
- Human vulnerability: "Women, / Babies clinging on their backs / Dart about / In and out / Madly"
- Environmental imagery: The storm represents nature's force against human structures
The poet shows nature as powerful and fierce, while humans must adapt and respond to environmental forces.
| Theory | Focus | Key Question |
|---|---|---|
| Formalism | Form and structure of text | How do literary devices create meaning? |
| Marxism | Class struggle and ideology | How does the text reflect social and economic power? |
| Post-Colonial | Colonial impact and identity | How does the text address colonisation and hybridity? |
| Feminism | Gender roles and oppression | How does the text portray women and gender relations? |
| Eco-Criticism | Human-nature relationship | How does the text represent the environment? |
| Social Learning | Observation and imitation | What behaviours does the text model for readers? |
Understanding these literary theories helps you become a more critical reader of everyday texts in Tanzania—from newspaper articles analysing political events (using Marxism) to understanding why certain stories about women resonate across generations (using feminism). For example, when reading a Tanzanian drama that addresses environmental conservation, eco-criticism helps you analyse how the writer portrays the relationship between local communities and their natural surroundings, such as forests near Kilimanjaro or fishing communities around Lake Victoria.
Swali
Which of the following best describes the primary focus of formalism in literary criticism?
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