Mada za sehemu hiiAnalyse literary criticism theoriesMada 3
- Examine the four traditional critical theories (mimetic, pragmatic, objective and expressive)
- Explain modern theories of literary criticism (formalism, Marxism, post-colonial, feminism, eco-criticism and social learning theory)
- Apply modern literary theories in critiquing a selected literary text
Literary criticism is the practice of reading, interpreting, analyzing, and judging literary texts. When we criticize literature, we engage deeply with writings to understand their meaning, value, and effect. Over centuries, scholars have developed different approaches to understand how literature works. These approaches are called critical theories. This study note examines four traditional critical theories that form the foundation of literary criticism: mimetic, pragmatic, expressive, and objective theories. Each theory answers a fundamental question: What is literature? What does it do? And how should we evaluate it?
What It Is
The word "mimetic" comes from the Greek word mimesis, meaning "imitation" or "representation." Mimetic theory holds that literature imitates or represents real life. According to this view, a literary work is a mirror that reflects the observable world—human behavior, social situations, nature, and reality as we experience it.
Key Proponents
Two ancient Greek philosophers developed this theory, though they disagreed about what is being imitated:
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Plato argued that earthly objects are only copies of ideal, perfect forms. From his perspective, literature imitates these shadows of reality, making it twice removed from truth. In his Allegory of the Cave, prisoners chained in a cave see only shadows on a wall and mistake them for reality. Literature, like the shadows, can mislead us from true knowledge.
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Aristotle disagreed with his teacher. He argued that poetry (literature) is not mere copying but a creative act. Poets take materials from the real world and transform them into something new. Literature imitates not just the surface of things but the ideal reality or universal truths about human nature.
How to Apply It
When using mimetic theory, ask:
- Does the text reflect real-life situations?
- How does the author represent the world we know?
- What aspects of reality does the text capture or transform?
Worked Example
Consider the play excerpt from Fate of a Cockroach by Tawfiq Hakim. The interaction between the King, Queen, and Minister about the ants reflects real political situations in many societies—leaders avoiding responsibility, citizens demanding action, and the cycle of neglect. The text imitates real human behavior where those in power deflect problems rather than solve them. This is not a direct copy of any single event but a representation of a pattern we recognize in everyday life.
What It Is
Pragmatic theory focuses on the relationship between the text and the reader. It examines the practical effects that a literary work has on its audience. This theory asks: What does the text do to the reader? Does it educate, entertain, influence feelings, or change attitudes?
The theory dates back to the philosophical movement of pragmatism in the 1870s and is associated with thinkers like Philip Sidney, Jeremy Bentham, and Stanley Fish. It treats literature as a social action—authors create texts, and readers interpret them, with both parties engaged in a dynamic process.
Key Assumptions
- Literary texts are created for a purpose beyond mere enjoyment
- Readers are influenced by what they read
- Literature can inform, educate, entertain, or persuade
- The text's value lies in its effects on the audience
How to Apply It
When using pragmatic theory, ask:
- What effect does this text have on readers?
- Does it teach something? Entertain? Change attitudes?
- How does the author use language to influence the audience?
- What practical message or lesson does the text convey?
Worked Example
In the same Fate of a Cockroach excerpt, the author uses humor and exaggeration to criticize lazy governance. The King's refusal to solve the ant problem despite repeated pleas from the Minister and Queen creates frustration in the reader. This frustration is intentional—it encourages readers to think critically about leadership and responsibility. The play does not simply entertain; it prompts us to question why problems persist when solutions are needed. The author's purpose is to influence our thinking about social and political issues.
What It Is
Expressive theory emerged in the 1800s, influenced by writers like Longinus, Francis Bacon, William Wordsworth, and the Romantic poets. This theory views literature as the outward expression of the author's inner world—feelings, thoughts, perceptions, and creative imagination. According to this view, a poem or novel is essentially the author's mind made visible.
The famous Romantic poet William Wordsworth defined poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility." This captures the essence of expressive theory—literature reveals the author's internal experience.
Key Assumptions
- Literature reflects the author's personal feelings, thoughts, and vision
- The author's inner life (mind, emotions, imagination) shapes the work
- Imagination is not a mirror reflecting external reality but a lamp that projects the author's inner light onto the world
- The text is a vehicle for the author's self-expression
How to Apply It
When using expressive theory, ask:
- What feelings does the author convey through this text?
- What is the author's attitude toward the subject matter?
- How does the author's personality or worldview show through?
- What does the text reveal about the author's thoughts and emotions?
Worked Example
In the excerpt from The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born by Ayi Kwei Armah, the description of the visitor's physical appearance—his wolf mouth, abundant lip flesh, and tortured gums—reveals the author's internal state. The grotesque imagery reflects a mind disturbed by corruption and moral decay in postcolonial society. The author uses the visitor's awkward attempts to secure wagon space as a way of expressing frustration with bureaucratic injustice. The text is not merely describing an event; it is expressing the author's psychological and emotional response to social conditions.
What It Is
Objective theory developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Unlike the other three theories, objective theory separates literature from external references—it does not ask what the text imitates, how it affects readers, or what the author feels. Instead, it treats the literary work as a self-sufficient entity that should be judged by its internal qualities alone.
This theory aligns with the principle of "art for art's sake." The value of a text lies in its formal elements—plot, character, language, imagery, structure, and how these work together to create meaning. T.S. Eliot, a key advocate, argued that we must consider poetry primarily as poetry, not as a vehicle for moral lessons or personal expression.
Key Assumptions
- A literary work is an autonomous object with its own internal structure
- Meaning arises from the text's formal elements, not external factors
- The author's biography and intentions are irrelevant to interpretation
- Form and content are inseparable—the way a text is written is the meaning
How to Apply It
When using objective theory, ask:
- How do the formal elements (language, structure, imagery) create meaning?
- What is the relationship between form and content in this text?
- How do plot, character, and setting work together?
- What aesthetic effects does the author create through craft?
Worked Example
In the excerpt from The Gathering Storm by H. Sokko, the descriptive opening—"The sun shone very brightly one afternoon, sending its hot rays scorching the red soils of Bulembe"—demonstrates objective theory in action. The choice of words ("scorching"), the imagery of heat, and the specific details of the setting work together to create atmosphere. We do not ask what the author feels or whether this reflects real life; we focus on how the language itself produces meaning. The heat and dust create a sense of oppressive atmosphere that shapes the reader's experience independent of external concerns.
| Theory | Core Question | Focus | Key Proponents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mimetic | What does the text imitate? | Relationship between literature and reality | Plato, Aristotle |
| Pragmatic | What effect does the text have? | Literature and the reader | Philip Sidney, Jeremy Bentham |
| Expressive | What does the author express? | Literature and the author's mind | Wordsworth, Romantics |
| Objective | What is the text itself? | Internal form and structure | T.S. Eliot, John Crew Ransom |
When analyzing any literary text, you may apply one or more of these theories depending on the aspect you wish to explore:
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Mimetic analysis works well when examining how realistically a text depicts society, human behavior, or social issues.
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Pragmatic analysis is useful when studying a text's purpose—its moral, educational, or persuasive functions.
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Expressive analysis helps uncover the author's personal vision, emotional state, or ideological stance.
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Objective analysis is valuable when focusing on craft—how language, structure, and literary devices create meaning.
Understanding these four traditional critical theories equips you with tools for analyzing not only literary texts but also everyday communication in Tanzania. For example, when you watch a popular Tanzanian drama on television or read a news article, you can ask: Does it reflect real life (mimetic)? What message is the creator trying to send (pragmatic)? What feelings or beliefs does the creator want to express (expressive)? How does the use of language and imagery create meaning (objective)? These analytical skills are valuable for critical thinking in careers such as journalism, teaching, law, and business, where interpreting texts and arguments effectively is essential.
Swali
According to mimetic theory, what does the word "mimetic" originate from?
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