State Organization

1. Conquest - Some powerful states conquered the weaker societies and therefore making them strong and expand. For example Buganda conquered Bunyoro in the interlacustrine regions.
2. Trade - Trade such as the long distance trade enabled the society concerned to become strong and powerful after acquiring commodities of different types including weapons which were used for strengthening their societies. Baganda got guns from the East Coast to defend and expand. The empires of the Mali, Ghana and Songhai got metal and hoes from North Africa to strengthen their military.
3. Good climate and fertile soils (soil fertility) - It led to the increase of food and assurance of feeding which led to population increase, a factor that was very important for the state formation. For instance heavy rainfall and fertile soil enabled production of more food and surplus in Buganda.
4. Good leadership - Some African rulers were strong and ambitious to expand their empire so they organized their people and got support from them for example: Kabaka of Buganda.
5. Availability of iron - Iron promoted agricultural products and was used for making war weapons, which in turn became most important for conquering other states.
6. Migration - This was a complimentary factor it happened that some people migrated to other states and brought with them new technology and skills which were used to expand and strengthen the new societies concerned.
7. Size of the kingdom - Kingdoms that were small such as Buganda and Ghana were easier to organize, to administer effectively and to defend unlike the larger kingdoms like the Bunyoro; the effective control was impossible.

Location of a place e.g. in trading while some of the African States were near to the trading towns as they obtained tax and commodities. Iron technology in Africa also helped in the development and rise of Africa states e.g. by Iron they made weapons like spears, arrows, guns etc. weapons were useful on conquering small states e.g. Buganda conquered Bunyoro-Kitara, Nyankole.

Some states had good leadership and they were able to organise their states e.g. Shaka Zulu, Mirambo of Nyamwezi, Mkwawa of Hehe. Tunkumanin of Ghana, Sunsiata of Mali etc.

Men belonging to African societies were involved in long and short distance trade, which led to:

1. Outbreak of wars and migration
2. Formal governments

1. Increase in size of states led to poor organization and state management e.g. Ghana and other states.
2. Wars and conquest while some of the states were conquered by strong states e.g. In Mfecane war about 100 states were conquered by Zulu.
3. Slave trade in Africa also affected many weak states while strong states managed to conquer small states e.g. Fulani in West Africa declined due to this.
4. The system of obtaining leaders through heritage did not lead to the development of states but the fall of states that were following this system.
5. The conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims in some societies while non-Muslim societies being conquered by the Muslim societies.
6. Weak leaders in some societies failed to organize their states leading to their decline.

1. Decentralized state (non-centralized) or stateless political societies.
2. Centralized kingdoms and empires.

These societies did not have well defined and complex or centralized system of government. These emerged because of one powerful family to control other clan to dominance of wealth and political power.

Characteristics of decentralized states

1. Most of them are small in terms of population and geographical areas.
2. Stateless political societies in Africa were usually made up of a group of either neighboring towns or villages that had no political connection with a larger kingdom as a nation.
3. Politically autonomous villages characterize them. That is each village was politically separated and not connected to the neighboring village no hereditary chiefs.
4. These religious organization structures of kinship ties lineage groups and secret societies provided regulations.
5. They did not have a system of chiefs, it showed position of chief was weak and was not hereditary.
6. Chiefs were usually selected by a group of elders and not based on their family connections.
7. Some decentralized societies did not have chiefs they were organized by a council of elders, which comprised of many elderly people in the community.

These large kingdoms or empires developed in a complex system of government. These large empires governed by kings who had near absolute power such as Ancient Egypt in north Africa, Ghana, Mali and Songhai in West Africa, Zimbabwe (southern Africa), Bunyoro, Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Toro of East Africa. These kingdoms were similar to those empires in Asia and Europe that were in existence during the same time/period.

Mansa Musa of Mali and the Sunni Ali of Songhai had near absolute power and there were no separation of power. The political control such as executive, legislature and judicial functioning were centralized in the hands of the few people. Political societies refer to these societies as centralized.

African societies were large empires governed by kings, who had near absolute power

For example:

1. North Africa – Egypt, Nubia, Axum in North East.
2. Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bornu in West.
3. Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Toro in East Africa.

Characteristics of centralized political systems

1. Presence of a king or queen.
2. The clan had to pay tribute to the monarchy.
3. Availability of enough food to feed the settled population.
4. The centralized authority was responsible for solving social disputes.

According to archaeological evidence, the Egyptian state arose between 1500 and 500 BC. The evidence also show that by this time there were already villages of self-sufficient producers who grew wheat, barley and kept animals. These producers formed permanent settlements as they increased in population.

Reasons for the Rise of the Egyptian State

1. The development of agriculture and pastoralism.
2. Specialization of labor.
3. The rise of names who united the upper and the lower Egypt.
4. Development of local industries.
5. Taxation.
6. Strong army.
7. Development of productive forces.

Classes in the Egyptian State

1. The ruling class- Consisted of the Pharaoh who was at the top followed by the nobility, priests, court officials and other officials- Followed by administrators of the people called the Vizier.
2. The working class
3. The peasants and slaves

Ethiopia started as a small kingdom known as Axum, was founded near the red sea coast by a dynasty of Sabena from the other side of the Red Sea. The Ethiopia arose around 1000 BC.

Factors for the Growth of the Ethiopian State

1. Strong leadership
2. Agriculture
3. Unity among the people
4. Growth of local industries
5. Strong army
6. Taxation
7. Christianity

Classes in Ethiopia

1. Feudal Lords
2. Peasants (tenants and serfs)

Feudalism was consolidated by the introduction of Christianity during the 4th AD and King Ezana was the first to be converted. King Zangwe built 30 churches. A descendant of King Solomon and Queen Sheba.

Expansion done by 3 Emperors (leaders)

1. Zangwe Dynasty – 12th C – 13th C
2. King Theodire – 19th C – 1855 – 1868
3. Menelik II – 19th C – 1889 – 1913
4. Menelik II made Addis Ababa his Capital

Nubia lay in the area that cut across the borders of modern Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia. The Nubian State arose around 200 BC. It was called Kush and its capital was Napata. In 3rd C the capital shifted to Meroe.

Factors for the Rise/Growth of the Nubian State

1. Agricultural activities
2. Trade
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold and ivory
4. Development of local industries

Decline of Nubia

1. Feudal lords were against the peasants
2. Attacks by Muslims
3. Disunity

The early state in western Sudan was established in the region between the Sahara desert and the forest region of the South. The most important states are Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bornu.

General factors for the Rise of Western Sudanic States

1. Geographical location
2. Iron technology
3. The growth of population
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Trans-Saharan trade
7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold
8. Good centralized government
9. Capable leaders
10. Strong army

During its rise, Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans. The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Koumbi Saleh. Tunka Manin was the last ruler of the Ghana Empire.

Factors for the Rise of the Ghana Empire

1. Agricultural activities
2. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold
3. Trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt
4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.
5. Common language.

Factors for the Decline of Ghana Empire

1. Almoravids constant attacks
2. Disunity among people
3. Jihad wars
4. Lack of stable system of royal successions
5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali

Early in the 3rd century Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kagaba.

Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell under Sundiata's rulership.

Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niani and the title of the ruler was Mansa.

Factors for the Rise of the Mali

1. The fall of Ghanaian empire
2. Control of gold fields of Bure
3. Strong army
4. Agricultural activities
5. Trans-Saharan trade
6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mansa KanKan Musa
7. Islamic faith, which promoted libraries and Islamic universities.

Decline of the Mali Empire

1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV.
2. Empire became too large to control.
3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they fought against each other.
4. Attacks by Tuaregs.
5. Civil wars.
6. The rise of Songhai empire.

In the late 15th Century the Songhai Empire originally the Gao, conquered neighboring states under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its capital at around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were Sunni Ali, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.

Factors for the Growth of Songhai Empire

1. Agriculture activities
2. Strong army
3. Trans-Saharan trade
4. Good administration
5. Taxation
6. Islamic faith

Decline of the Songhai Empire

1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud
2. The Moroccan invasion
3. The empire was too large to control
4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs
5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic.

The Benin Empire

Benin Empire was a very small state made up of the Edo speaking people. The highest authority at the time were chiefs known as Ogiso, which meant the 'Kings of the Sky', and the administrative centers was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431, there was a series of civil wars, which divided the Edo.

After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan left for exile and established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he sent his son, Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne. By 15th C the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great.

Reasons for the Rise of the Benin Empire

1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of whom was Ewuare
2. Good centralized system of government
3. Trade
4. Unity
5. Development of handicraft industry

Decline of the Benin Empire

1. Introduction of slave trade.
2. Trans-Atlantic trade.
3. Firearms introduced through European trade caused tribal wars that led to the final decline of the Benin Empire.

Oyo Empire

Oyo Empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 – 1431. The people of Oyo were Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alaafin. The Bashoran was the leader of the army.

Reasons for the Rise of the Oyo Empire

1. It had organized political system headed by a number of great Alafins
2. Strong organized army
3. Agricultural activities
4. Development of local industries
5. Slave trade
6. Dahomey tributary

Decline of the Oyo Empire

1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon
2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey
3. Civil wars and disunity

Dahomey Empire

Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. The Fun people founded it. It had good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey.

The Rise of the Dahomey Empire

1. Growth of centralized and powerful monarchy
2. Boyul succession system was effective
3. Strong army
4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Agaja
5. Control of slave trade

Decline of Dahomey

Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.

Asante Empire

Asante or Ashanti Empire was found because of emergence of several cities in the region of Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.

Factors for the Rise of Asante

1. Agricultural activities
2. Development of local industries
3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu
4. Well organized political system
5. Trade

Decline of Asante Empire

The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.

Kongo Empire

It was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of Munikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza, which the Portuguese later baptized Sutrador. Nzinga Nkuwu was among the greatest rulers in Kongo kingdom He was baptized by Catholic Portuguese, and renamed Affonso I.

Factors for the Rise of Kongo Empire

1. Technological development e.g. iron technology
2. Trade
3. Taxation
4. Development of local industries
5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power

Decline of the Congo Empire

1. The arrival of the Portuguese
2. Slave trade
3. Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy in Portugal.
4. His son Nzinga Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of the Portuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.

Mwenemutapa Kingdom

This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa, which means 'Master of conquered lands. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his son Matope inherited, after Matope's death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490.

Reasons for the Rise of Mwenemutapa

1. Agriculture activities
2. Good leadership of Mutola
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold
4. They controlled trade routes
5. Trading centres

Reasons for the Decline of Mwenemutapa

1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade
2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi
3. Rebellion from local people

After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other chief who wanted power so that chief rebelled and caused civil war.

The Luba State

This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom, Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave rise to the Luba lineage of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.

Reasons for the Rise of the Luba State

1. Agricultural activities.
2. The development of trade.
3. The presence of iron technology.
4. Centralized system of administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and external trade.

The Lunda State

The center of the empire lay in the Valley of Nkala River. The Luba kings took the title of Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantaga. Ilunga Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda State.

Factors for the Rise of Lunda State

1. Iron technology
2. Development of local industries
3. Agriculture activities
4. Good leadership

Factors that gave Rise to Centralized System of Government

1. Existence of strong leadership for example among the Buganda, strong and able rulers such as Kyabagu, Suna and Mutesa 1 were able to unite the Buganda people and govern them.
2. Permanent cultivation and dense population.
3. A long period of war with neighbors encouraged the people to form one United States for the sake of security such as between the Sambaa and Baganda.
4. Strong army helped to conquer new areas and force the people to accept the ruler of one leader. E.g Chief Mirambo of Unyamwezi.