Pre-colonial African society

This is the oldest system of social relations and preside all the other modes of production. It marked the rise of society from sheer animalism to human society. The main activities were hunting and gathering.

OR

This is the earliest form mode of production in human history where evolution of society started, people were powerless before the environment and depended on whatever nature gave them for food; such as insects, roots and tools involved were; stones, arrows etc.

Examples of societies practicing communal mode:

• Maasai of East Africa
• Flani of West Africa
• Khoikhoi of South Africa

Features of Communial Mode of Production

1. Collective ownership There was collective ownership of major means of production. E.g. Land was owned by the whole society. It led to absence of exploitation because means of production were not owned by few people.

2. Low level of production forces It was characterized by low level of production forces because the tools were mode out of stones.

3. Absence of trading activities Absence of surplus lead to absence of trade because whatever produced was consumed.

4. Low level of production This was due to low level of tools of production, that means non surplus and whatever produced was consumed.

5. No exploitation There was no any exploitation because of collective ownership.

NB: This mode changed within time depending of discovery of iron tools which increased production leading to surplus which transformed to exploitative modes to exploitative modes.

This is the first exploitative mode of production. Here a person became an absolute Property of another man. Slaves dominated by slave masters. It should be noted that many African societies transformed directly from primitive communalism to feudalism as a result slave mode was not well developed. It was highly practiced in Egypt, Slaves built pyramids

Features of Slave Mode of Production

1. Existence of two antagonistic classes There was existence of two antagonistic classes, that is slaves and slave masters. Slaves were producers of their own material requirement's and surplus products for their masters.

2. Private ownership There was private ownership of the major means of production, whereby means of production are slaves and are owned by slave masters.

3. Existence of exploitation It was characterized by exploitation of man by man. Because Slaves were the ones who were involved in production and whatever they produced was appropriated by the slave masters.

4. Relatively advanced tools The level of productive forces was still low but relatively advanced than under communal mode of production.

5. Relatively high level of political institution This is due to the use of better tools of production which increased production which supported increase in population leading to formation of states or Kingdoms.

NB: The slave mode of production later declined due to conflicts between the slaves and slave masters over exploitation of the slaves by slaves masters. The decline of this mode, paved way for the rise of another mode known as feudal mode of production.

Why Pre-colonial African Societies Did Not Develop (Advance) Slave Mode of Production

The Following are the reasons showing clearly that the pre-colonial Africa did not develop slave as mode of production:

i. Slavery existed as an institution, not a dominant mode of production

In most parts of Africa, slavery was limited to specific regions and functioned more as a social or domestic institution rather than a system underpinning the entire economy.

• Zanzibar: Slavery became more visible after Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital from Muscat (Oman) to Zanzibar in 1840. Slaves were brought from Central and East Africa mainly to work in domestic roles such as cooking, cleaning, fetching water, guarding homes, and caring for children and elders. Others worked in clove and coconut plantations, but not under a system that transformed the mode of production.
• Egypt: During the Pharaohs' rule, slaves were used for constructing canals, tombs, and calendar creation, and performed household work. These activities were state-organized rather than based on private slave ownership as an economic base.
• Maghreb Societies (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria): Slaves from West and Northeast Africa were employed mainly in agriculture (like palm dates) and domestic work. Again, the economy was not dependent on slavery but integrated various labor forms.

ii. Slavery co-existed with feudalism

In many areas, especially in regions like Zanzibar, feudalism was the dominant mode of production, and slavery existed alongside it, rather than replacing it. The society was organized around land ownership and tribute, not slave labor as a primary economic engine.

iii. Absence of a distinct slave-owning class

There was no defined class of slave masters in most pre-colonial African societies. For slavery to qualify as a mode of production, it requires a clear class structure: slave owners and slaves. Since this class divide was generally absent, feudalism remained the more dominant and structured system.

iv. Low level of productive forces favored feudalism, not slavery

The technological and economic tools used by African societies transitioning from primitive to more advanced systems—such as the use of the hoe for cultivation—point to a feudal system based on land ownership. There was no widespread use of slave labor for production on a scale large enough to define an economic system.

v. Economic systems favored kinship and communal ownership over slave-based exploitation

Pre-colonial African societies largely operated under communal or lineage-based systems, where labor was shared within kinship networks. This structure discouraged dependence on slaves, as labor needs were met through family units, age groups, and reciprocal community obligations, further preventing the rise of a slave-based economy.

Transition from Slavery to Feudal Mode of Production

The Major factors for the decline of slavery and the emergence of feudal mode of production were as follows:

1. Improvement of productive forces during the slavery Changed the social and technical relation of production and geared to the decline of slave mode of production and the rise of feudalism.

2. Existence of class struggle in slavery The series of slaves uprising against the masters at the end of the day led to collapse of slave mode of production and hence emergence of feudalism.

3. The Failure of the productive forces to correspond with social and technical relational production (relation of production) According to Karl Marx (1818-1883) pointed out that if productive forces and social and technical relation of production in a certain mode of production are not going hand in hand with the existing mode of production.

4. Slaves lacked interest in labour They frequently destroyed the equipment of production owned by slave masters hence slavery collapsed.

5. Cruel Exploitation and Oppression of Slaves The harsh conditions, physical abuse, and total lack of rights created deep resentment among slaves. This led to revolts, resistance, and general instability. Over time, this widespread unrest forced society to adopt a more stable system—feudalism—which, though exploitative, allowed peasants more autonomy.

6. Resistance to Technological Advancement by Slave Owners Slave owners often refused to adopt new tools and techniques, relying on old, manual systems of production. This resistance to innovation made slavery economically backward. As more efficient and structured systems were needed, feudalism offered a better alternative for managing resources and labor.

7. Decline in Slave Supply Due to Military Campaigns Frequent wars and conquests once provided a steady supply of slaves. Over time, military campaigns declined, and the number of captives fell. As a result, the cost of acquiring new slaves rose, making slavery less profitable. This scarcity forced landowners to restructure labor systems, shifting toward feudal arrangements where labor was tied to the land.

Feudalism was the second exploitative mode of production in which land was the major means of production. Under this mode of production, there were two classes of people. The first class consisted of the feudal lords who owned the major means of production and appropriated the surplus. The other class comprised the serfs and tenants who were given pieces of land to cultivate. In return, they paid rent to the feudal lords. In many parts of Africa, feudalism was associated with certain elements of slavery

Example of societies practiced feudalism:

• Haya in Tanganyika
• Zulu in South Africa

Features of Feudal Mode of Production

1. Existence of two dominant classes There were dominant classes that is the feudal lords and peasants. The feudal lords / land lords controlled/owned land and peasants were employed by them.

2. Private ownership It was characterized by private ownership as in the major means of production were controlled by the feudal lords. Example: Land and cattle were property of the feudal lords. If peasants wanted to use the land, they had to pay.

3. Exploitation It was characterized by exploitation of man by man because major means of production were controlled by a few people who are the feudal / land lords. Peasants were exploited through payment of rent.

4. Advanced tools of production The level of productive forces was advanced which led to high level of production: this led to availability of surplus.

Feudal Relations in East Africa

Feudalism existed for many centuries in the world in different forms. For example, by the 19th century, East African societies had witnessed the development of different forms of feudal relations as follows:

1. Nyarubanja This was a feudal system that developed in Karagwe and Buhaya, where small pieces of land (plots) were owned by the ruling class (batwazi) and given to serfs (batwara) after agreements on the payment of tributes and loyalties had been reached. The supreme title under the nyarubanja system was known as omukama, while the royal class was known as the abakungu.

2. Busulo/Mvunjo This feudal system developed in Buganda and Bunyoro (Uganda), where landless people submitted themselves to land owners for a piece of land to work on in return for the labour services rendered. For example, the obusulo system consisted of the Kabaka, Bakungu, Balangira (princes), Batongole (loyal supporters), Bakopi (serfs) and the badu (slaves). Kabaka was the political title given to the ruler of the Buganda Kingdom.

3. Ubugabire This feudal system developed in Rwanda, Burundi and Buha (Kigoma in Tanzania). The Hutu and Tutsi people of Rwanda and Burundi, and the Ha of Kigoma developed ubugabire as a form of feudalism based on cattle. The feudal relationship in these regions revolved around cattle ownership. Being the lower class the Hutu went to the Tutsi (who were called the sebuja), requesting a portion of the lords' huge herd to take care of or to rent. The Hutu became herdsmen, firewood collectors, water fetchers and cultivators of the landlords' farms for a given time. Mwami was the political title given to the wealthy rulers among the Ha and bagabire was given to the exploited class.

4. Umwinyi This system of feudalism developed along the East African coast, particularly on Zanzibar Island. In this system, the landlords and the ruling classes were known as mamwinyi. They possessed the land and turned other society members into serfs otherwise known as watwana. The serfs paid tributes to mamwinyi. Mamwinyi were engaged in the production of cloves and coconuts. The production and tributes that the watwana paid enabled mamwinyi to become powerful economically and politically, and to engage in long-distance trade with the interior societies as well as with the Europeans and Asian traders.

5. Ntemiship Ntemiship was a form of semi-feudal relations that developed in the central part of Tanzania. It was practised by the Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Kimbu and Gogo. The leader's power was based on his control of the producers. The ruling class under ntemiship monopolised all political power and collected tribute from the subject peasantry. Mtemi was the political title given to the ruler. The Mtemi controlled and mobilsed labour. This system experienced a mild form of feudal relations compared to other parts of East Africa, partly because of poor soil and marginal rains that inhibited surplus production. Thus, the ntemiship system had mixed features of communalism and feudalism.

Characteristics of Pre-Colonial African Societies

1. Family was the basic unit of production In most communities, production activities such as farming and tool-making were carried out within family units. This limited specialization and slowed the advancement of science and technology, keeping agricultural output relatively low.

2. Low level of productive forces due to the use of primitive tools Tools made from stones or wood resulted in inefficient production systems. The lack of advanced technology meant low output and minimal surplus, which discouraged trade and economic expansion.

3. Land was communally owned and allocated based on cultural customs Land distribution was handled by clan leaders under customary laws. Ownership was collective rather than individual, and decisions about land use followed traditional values.

4. Existence of class structures in some societies While many African societies were egalitarian, others developed class divisions. For instance, under the slave mode of production, there were slave owners and slaves. In feudal systems, feudal lords owned land while peasants worked on it.

5. Agriculture and pastoralism were dominant economic activities Agricultural production was common in fertile regions such as the interlacustrine areas and was largely practiced by settled, feudal communities. Pastoralism thrived in semi-arid zones like the Rift Valley, with groups such as the Maasai specializing in livestock rearing.

6. Presence of pre-capitalist modes of production: communalism, slavery, and feudalism These modes were the foundation of production systems in most regions before colonialism. Capitalism only began to take root with the advent of European colonial rule.

7. Production was largely for subsistence rather than for trade Goods were produced to meet immediate needs of the family or community. The concept of market-oriented production only emerged during colonial times, when African labor and land were redirected to serve external markets through raw material exports.