Pan Afracanism movement

These were those that stimulated hostility from within Africa. The main factor was colonialism which is divided into two sub-factors.

1. Exploitation

Land alienation

Land alienation involved grabbing of land from the natives by the white settlers. Land was taken so that the colonialists get areas where cash crops production and mining activities can take place to produce the required raw materials. Land alienation was common in settler colonies such as Zimbabwe.

Taxation

The colonialists introduced various taxes as an indirect way of getting cheap labor. The taxes which were introduced included poll and hut taxes, but these taxes were collected with a lot brutality. Some people were flogged and even failed to pay taxes.

Forced labor

The colonialists introduced labor laws that compelled or forced the Africans to provide cheap and sometimes free labor on European economic enterprises. Laws such as Kipande system in Kenya compelled all able bodies to provide cheap labor on white settlers' farms, failure to provide labor punishment was given.

2. Payment of low prices to peasants' products

Peasants were exploited, these group increase cooperation among themselves and boycotts, strike and other movements threatened colonialism and establish the great challenge that led to the freedom and way to form political parties which were the main venue for forming government.

These cooperatives were, Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association (KNPA), The Bataka Association - Uganda and The Bukoba Cooperative Union.

The peasants produced products which they sold to the colonial government, but they received low prices for their products, yet the white settlers were given higher producer prices. This prompted them to fight for independence.

3. Dictatorial nature of the colonial government

The colonial powers established their governments in Africa by using the barrel of the gun. The Africans hated the oppressive resistance such as the army, police and prison. To make matters worse, Africans were not allowed to be in any higher position in colonial government.

4. Role of colonial education

Colonial education resulted into emergence of educated elite group. These group had a great hope and expectations, after their education, their hope was to get white collar jobs like good employment was difficult, low wages and segregation in work was common.

These educated Africans started to mobilize their fellow Africans to stand up for independence. These educated Africans formed the political parties to demand independence constitutional with other organized guerrilla fighting.

5. Formation of independent churches

These were churches that were formed by the Africans as a reaction to which they were facing in the European churches. These churches addressed not only religious issues, but also political and economic grievances.

6. The role of trade unions

The trade unions were formed by workers as a reaction to their exploitation and oppression under colonialism. The trade union had numerous demands e.g. increased wages and better conditions.

7. Italian and Ethiopian conflict

The Italian-Ethiopian conflict contributed to the development of African nationalism. They fought from 1935 to 1941 between the Italians under Mussolini and Haile Selassie respectively, though the Ethiopians were defeated but their determined resistance to protect their independence encouraged Africans to fight for their independence.

8. The role of returned soldiers

The ex-soldiers from WWI and WWII contributed to the rise of nationalism. These promises were promised employment and good life and return. The promises were not fulfilled afterwards, these soldiers started to question the colonial government.

These soldiers came with new ideas and technique for fighting one of the ideas used that "white man can be defeated".

9. Independence of Ghana

Some few analyses say that, Ghana contributed a lot towards the independence of African countries in different ways.

After attaining her independence during 1957, this independence stimulated and encourage other African countries to struggle for nationalism, the country also took as case study and center for training liberation armies and from the thought obtained in Ghana it was easy for other countries to speed up the nationalism movement.

The rise of African nationalism was also influenced by global situation, there were forces operating from outside Africa which played a big role in the rise of African nationalism.

1. The role of the United Nations (UN)

The end of WWII led to the formation of the international organization like United Nations which was against all forms of exploitation and colonialism in different part of the world, this organs was played the great role in the independence struggle in different parts of Africa because this body helped different colonies to regain back their independence and demise colonialism in different parts of Africa because it was the distinctive and distance for the development in Africa.

2. The Pan Africanism movement

This movement was formed in the United States of America by the Black people in Diaspora. The main goal of the movement was to fight for the abolition of slave trade and slavery, but after the abolition of slave trade it turned into a liberation movement whereby it advocated for nationalism.

3. The rise of the United States of America

The end of WWII, marked the new power coming up USA, took the part of Britain USA had no colonies in Africa and from there it needed areas for getting raw materials, markets and areas for investment to get their colonies she had to encourage the so called "open door policy".

4. The role of the USSR

The WWII ended with the rise of socialist, USSR was making a step towards industrial development hence demanded areas for the economic motives like areas for raw material, market and capital investment. This need made USSR to support decolonization process.

5. China revolution

The revolution of China 1949 unfitness the rising of the proletarians and peasants forming a government of socialist since socialism was against colonialism it supported decolonization process in different parts of the world.

Ghana was one of the African countries that attained independence by the use of peaceful methods or constitutional method. Ghana was initially called Gold Coast. In 1946 the British colonial government introduced what was called the Burns constitution. Although this constitution provided for an African majority in the legislative council, it had two main weaknesses.

The legislative council was merely advisory, and it did not have deliberative vote, the decisions were made by the British officials.

Its representatives were very limited because out of the eighteen, thirteen were chiefs who were selected by their fellow chiefs who were supporters of the colonial system.

Reasons for a successful independence struggle in Ghana

There are various factors that account for a successful independence struggle in Ghana. It is one of the first African countries to attain independence. Ghana attained its independence in 1957.

1. Absence of tribalism. There was absence of tribalism in Ghana whereby the political party, Convention Peoples Party was not associated with any major tribe in Ghana. The absence of tribalism made it possible for the nationalists to get enough support that was needed to present a common front against the colonial government.

2. Strong leadership. Strong leadership is one of the factors that enabled Ghana to acquire her independence earlier than many African countries, Kwame Nkrumah was a strong leader who was able to unite all Africans in Ghana and fight for one common cause that is independence.

3. Clear policies. The Convention Peoples Party that fought for Ghana's independence had clear policies and elaborates programs. The party advocated for better prices for peasants' products, high wages to African workers and getting rid of colonial rule. This impressive idea managed to get support of the people in the struggle for independence.

4. Common language. The use of English as a common language helped greatly to the independence struggle in Ghana. This language was known to almost all the people in Ghana hence they became aware about the objectives of the Ghanaian nationalists and gave them the much-needed support against the colonial government.

5. Absence of many white settlers. There was absence of many white settlers in Ghana: the British had established a peasant economy thus they did not invest heavily. The absence of many white settlers made it easy for the British to grant independence to Ghana.

6. Good transport system. Ghana had relatively a good transport system which was helped by the small nature of the country. The transport system made it possible for the nationalists to move around the country campaigning to overthrow the colonial regime.

7. Popularity of CPP. The CPP was very popular in Ghana: the party had great support from the cocoa growers and the peasants and there were the ones who made up the biggest part of the population. On March of 6th 1957, the Gold Coast became independent taking the name of the ancient Ghana Empire, In July 1960, Ghana became a republic with Kwame Nkrumah as the first president.

External forces

External forces such as the United Nations Organization rise of USSR and the USA contributed greatly to the independence of Ghana. The UN put pressure on Britain to grant independence to Ghana. The USSR pledged to assist all African countries in their struggle for independence.

Role of Ghana to African Nationalism

The independence of Ghana in 1957 marked a turning point in Africa, it played a great role in ensuring the rest of the continent is liberated from colonial rule and this cause was led by Kwame Nkrumah.

Inspiration

The independence of Ghana in 1957 inspired many African countries to fight for their independence as well. Kwame Nkrumah acted as a limelight to other African states that were still under colonialism to fight for their independence. This is one of the reasons that encouraged Africans to use armed struggle so as to attain independence.

Material support

Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah provided financial support to most of the nationalist movements in Africa that were fighting for independence. The financial and moral support given by Nkrumah inspired many African countries to fight against colonial rule.

Headquarters of the pan African movement

Following the independence of Ghana in 1957, Accra the capital city of Ghana became the headquarters of the Pan African movement. The Pan African movement played a significant role in the independence of Ghana.

1. Encouraged African unity. Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the independence of many African countries by encouraging unity in the continent. He convened a meeting for all African trade unions in 1959 with the aim to unite all African states into a confederation. African unity was a crucial factor if Africa was to succeed against colonial rule.

2. Put pressure on France. Kwame Nkrumah exerted a lot of pressure on France to grant independence to Algeria. In 1959 to 1960 a team of delegates from Africa, Britain and America went to monitor the situation in Algeria. It was Nkrumah who took initiative of such a visit. Ghana also pressurized France to end her domination in West Africa.

3. The role of Radio Ghana. Radio Ghana played a great role in the struggle for independence. It became the mouth piece of African nationalist movements to air out their feelings towards colonial government exploitation and oppression. Broadcasting on the radio led to massive support for the nationalist both in and outside Africa.

Ghana became the model. Ghana under Nkrumah became the model for all African countries to emulate. Nkrumah once said that if he could, he would have delayed the independence of Ghana until a time when other Africa countries are independent. The position of Ghana encouraged many African countries to struggle for independence.

African struggle for independence in Zimbabwe was complicated because of the dominance of white settlers.

After World War Two, there was an influx of white settlers into Zimbabwe that led to massive expropriation of African land.

In 1951, Africans formed all African convention party that aimed at opposing the formation of the federation of three central African colonies i.e. Zimbabwe, Zambia and Nyasaland (Malawi). When the Federal constitution was imposed in 1953, the African convention fell apart.

A new nationalist party called the African National Council (ANC) was formed. The aim of the ANC was to oppose the British / Rhodesia agreement and ensure that independence was granted to the African majority.

The disintegration of the federation following the independence of Zambia and Malawi, forced the Rhodesian Front (political party of the white settlers) to press Britain to grant independence to Zimbabwe under minority rule. Britain tactfully approved the request and on 11th November 1965 Ian Smith unilaterally declared Southern Rhodesia independent, since then African nationalist movements were engaged in a prolonged guerrilla war until majority rule was declared in 1980.

1. Banning of nationalists' movements. The British colonial government was not ready to grant independence to Zimbabwe, it banned or suppressed many nationalist movements in Zimbabwe making the struggle for independence long and complicated. This position compelled the African nationalists to resort to the use of armed struggle to attain independence.

2. Tribalism. Tribalism hindered the struggle for independence in Zimbabwe. Most of the nationalist movements were divided along tribal lines; the dominant tribes were the Shona and Ndebele. Due to tribalism the African nationalists could not put a common front against the colonialists, thus the only alternative left was to use armed struggle to attain independence.

3. Richness of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is so rich in terms of minerals such as gold and diamond and it has enough fertile soil that can support the growth of cash crops that were needed in the metropolitan countries. The richness of the colony made it difficult for the colonial government to grant it independence, this made the Africans to use armed struggle.

4. Establishment of a settler economy. The white settlers had established a settler economy in Zimbabwe where they had invested so much in plantation farms and mining activities. The massive investments made the colonial government reluctant to grant the Africans independence because it would be tantamount to sacrificing all the wealth in Zimbabwe. This position made the Africans to use armed struggle.

5. Declaration of independence by Ian Smith. The white settlers in Zimbabwe requested Britain to grant Zimbabwe independence but under minority rule i.e. controlled by the white settlers. Britain approved the request and in 1965 Ian Smith unilaterally declared Zimbabwe independent, but under minority rule.

6. Harshness of the colonial government. The colonial government was very harsh in Zimbabwe: nationalist leaders were imprisoned, and the government pursued policies such as forced labor whereby to implement this.

7. Disunity. The political parties in Zimbabwe were not united thus it became very difficult for them to present a common front against the colonial government. There were sharp differences between the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and Zimbabwe African People's Party (ZAPU). These differences left African nationalist like Mugabe with no choice but to use armed struggle.

8. Support of the imperialist power. The Zimbabwe minority regime was supported by the imperialist powers in order to defend their interests. This was seen when powers like the USA, France and Germany failed to observe the United Nations sanctions code against Ian Smith minority regime.

The early political movements in Angola developed mainly along ethnic lines. The initial political parties expressed cultural activities like praising African culture.

In December 1956, the movement for people's liberation of Angola (MPLA) advocated for equal rights of all the colonized people irrespective of their color, creed or tribe. A positive element in the struggle for independence occurred in 1974 at a meeting in Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo where the MPLA and the FNLA adopted a common front in their struggle for independence.

Mozambique

In Mozambique the nationalist movements championing the grievances of both the workers and peasants emerged in the 1960. Due to the suppression of nationalist movements within Mozambique, nationalist movements were organized from outside by Mozambicans in exile.

These movements included the following.

• National Democratic Union of Mozambique formed in Southern Rhodesia in 1960.
• Mozambique African National Union formed in Kenya in 1961.
• African Union of Independent Mozambique formed in Nyasaland in 1961.

By the end of 1961, all the three nationalist movements had shifted their headquarters to Dar es Salaam. In 1962 they merged or joined to form Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO).

FRELIMO concentrated on training cadres, party organization and mobilization of world support. Actual armed struggle began in Mozambique in 1964 and the final victory of FRELIMO and the people of Mozambique came in 1975 and Samora Machel became the President.