Industrial Revolution Phasel (Britian 1750-1850) Phase II(spread of industrial revolution to Belgium, France, Germany, USA and Italy(1850-1890)

The industrial revolution begun in Britain on a large scale for the first time, later spread to other countries such as France, Germany, Spain and Belgium. During this period Britain was referred to as the "workshop of the world".

The causes of the industrial revolution are classified into internal and external factors:

Internal Factors

1. Growth of the internal This was caused by the rapid growth in population during the 18th century. There was about 10.5M people in 1801 and 20 M people in 1851. This growth of population was due to better health care and sanitation. The increase in population provided ready markets for industrial products thus contributing to the industrial revolution

2. Improvement of the transport systems. There was improvement in the transport system through the construction of roads, railways and canals. The good transport system supported the industrial revolution by providing cheap and reliable transport.

3. Non governmental interference. The British government pursued the laissez faire policy (no government intervention) whereby the government allowed the economy to operate fairly and freely with few controls. The absence of government interference encouraged investors to increase production thus contributing to the industrial revolution.

4. Peace and stability. The monarchy which controlled Britain provided a stable and predictable government. This monarchy has maintained peace and stability which are conducive for industrial activities.

5. Free trade system. Britain had the largest free trade unity in Europe completely unhampered by the local tariffs system. Almost each part of Britain produced something and traded with others. The absence of internal tariffs encouraged industrial activities thus leading to industrial revolution.

6. Geographical advantage. Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated industrial revolution. There was existence of coal and iron in plenty, coal mining was important in coastal shipping and provision of cheap fuel and later rail road construction. The existence of these two natural resources generated more technological innovations that enabled Britain to undergo the industrial revolution.

7. Technological advantages Britain was the first country to undergo technological advancement in various aspects. There were various discoveries that took place in Britain which facilitated the industrial revolution. In 1776, James Watt discovered the steam engine and in 1775 Miller Cromb discovered the water frame. These discoveries contributed to the scientific revolution and finally the industrial revolution.

External Factors

1. International links The paramount cause of the industrial revolution was the Trans Atlantic slave trade. British companies traded with all countries in Europe but most important was trade with Asia and North America. The most profitable business acquired huge profits which were used to build many industries.

2. Existence of many colonies. Britain had so many colonies in Africa, America and Asia. These colonies provided raw materials and ready markets for industrial products, therefore contributing to the industrial revolution.

The industrial revolution led to drastic economic and social changes in the lives of the British people. It replaced agriculture as the main source of wealth and was responsible for the scramble for the control of the rest of the world.

1. Development of industrial The industrial revolution contributed to the development of industrial towns such as Lancashire, Birmingham and derby shire in Britain. Development of these towns was due to the industries which were established near the markets and source of raw materials that attracted a number of people to settle in those areas thus leading to the development of towns.

2. Environmental degradation The industrial revolution contributed to environmental pollution in Europe. It led to chemical contamination in water bodies and air pollution. The destruction of the environment also contributed to the eruption of diseases which led to loss of lives.

3. Development of free trade policy. The industrial revolution contributed to the development of free trade in Europe. Free trade is an economic policy that allows free transfer of goods without economic barriers or tariffs. This policy was influenced by the production of large quantities of industrial goods that required overseas markets.

4. Rise of proletariat/ working classes The industrial revolution contributed to the development of working class in Europe. Members of the working class did not posses anything except their labor. They sold their labor to the owners of the industries who in turn paid those low wages and were forced to work under poor conditions. Their exploitation led to the formation of various movements such as Luddism and Chartism.

5. Introduction of democracy It contributed to the collapse of absolute monarchies that had existed in Europe during the feudal period. In France there was the bourbon monarchy where all French kings right from Louis XIV were despotic. The monarchy in Britain was also despotic, the kings believed in the "divine right of the king" whereby the king was not answering to any man except God. The industrial revolution replaced absolute monarchies with parliamentary system.

6. Economic hardship It was characterized with so many economic hardships. The workers were paid very low wages which were not enough to satisfy ordinary human beings. To supplement their meager pay; many fathers were forced to send their children into factories at the age of five. The workers were forced to work for 14 hours a day.

7. Development of slums The industrial revolution contributed to the development of slums in Europe with the growth of population in the 18th C. The older towns became more and more over crowded. More and more big families crowded into each house. Slums were very common in towns such as absence of proper sanitation and increased crime.

Between 1750s and 1870s Britain was referred to as the workshop of the world by other European countries because all the commodities of the world were being produced in Britain, during the period of Victoria, the entire world depended on high quality products from Britain.

There are various reasons to why Britain was called the workshop of the world, these included the following;

1. First to undergo the industrial revolution. Britain was the first country to undergo the industrial revolution in 1750 AD and then it spread to other countries such as German and France. The British people regarded themselves as the source of world civilization and their country was a model to other countries.

2. Source of technology and innovation. Britain was the source of technology in the world. Most of the inventions in technology took place in Britain e.g. the steam engine that was discovered in 1776 by James Watt and the maritime technology that started in Britain. It was Britain that set the pace for the industrialization of other countries.

3. Largest colonial empire. Britain had the largest colonial empire in the world. It controlled at least a quarter of the world's population. It had colonies in Asia, America and Africa. These colonies provided a ready market for British manufactured goods and raw materials that contributed to the industrial revolution.

4. Huge economy Britain had the largest economy between 1750 AD and 1870 AD; its economy was worth 540 million pounds the largest in Europe and it was followed by France which had 250 million pounds. The possession of the largest economy explains why it was called the workshop of the world.

5. Leading exporter of industrial goods. Britain was the leading exporter of the industrial products by that time and she monopolized the export of high quality industrial goods, this enabled her to control the world market and obtain higher profits this situation made Britain to be referred to as the workshop of the world.

6. Stable government The monarchy in Britain provided a stable and predictable government in the country. Peace and security provided a conducive atmosphere for massive investment thus enabling Britain to have the largest economy in the whole world.

7. Geographical advantage. Britain had an added advantage in natural resources which stimulated the industrial revolution. The existence of coal and iron in plenty was a crucial factor for the industrial revolution. Coal mining was important in the provision of fuel and later in railway road construction.

8. Existence of a fairly developed banking system. The development of financial institutions accelerated the industrial revolution in Britain. The banks provided loans to capitalist investors which made it possible for them to invest in various sectors of the economy, this massive investment enabled Britain to have the largest economy.

9. Good transport system. There was a fundamental improvement of transport system through the construction of roads and railways. The good transport system encouraged industrial activities by providing the cheap and reliable transportation system.

The Working class movement was the organization of workers that was formed after the prioritization in Europe. One of the immediate causes of the working class movement was impact of industrial revolution like unemployment, exploitation which owners faced after working in industries, low wages, long working hours, and lack of land during enclosure system which led people to go to the towns to look for employment.

Factors that contributed to the rise of the working class movement

1. Rise of Industrial cities There was development of industrial cities especially in the north and central parts of Britain. These cities involved Leads, Bradford, and Birmingham. The rise of industrial cities attracted people who sought employment in capitalist industries where they were exposed to exploitation and pressure.

2. Massive unemployment. Since the capitalists could only employ workers if they could make profit out of them, industrial capitalism led to massive unemployment in Britain, This condition subjected the employed to low wages. In reaction the employees formed working class movements to demand for better wages.

3. Poor working conditions. The poor working conditions in industrial countries contributed to the rise of working class movements. The workers were subjected to long working hours, poor working conditions forced the workers to form working class movement.

4. Agrarian revolution. The Agrarian revolution was characterized by the introduction of the enclosure system which involved buying land from the small peasants by the wealthy capitalists. The enclosure system made many people landless and therefore they shifted to towns they were exposed to exploitation and oppression.

5. Napoleonic wars. The wars between Britain and France during the period of Napoleon brought misery on the workers in Britain because they caused a great rise in the cost of living. The prices of food especially bread increased by hundred percent and there was heavy taxation which fell the working class movement.

Also known as the Luddite movement This was the first industrial working class movement in Britain. The word "luddism" came from an imaginary figure "Ned Lud" who was believed to be mythical leader of the movement. This movement dominated the early faces of the industrial revolution at the beginning of the 19th C. the movement concentrated on breaking machines because the members thought that their exploitation and oppression was due to the machines.

Aims/ Objectives of Luddism working class

1. Opposition to New Machinery and Technology The Luddites were particularly focused on the destruction of machinery. One of their main goals was to resist the growing mechanization of industries, particularly in the textile sector, where new machinery, such as the power loom and spinning jenny, were replacing traditional handcrafts. The workers believed that the introduction of these machines led to massive unemployment and reduced wages as fewer skilled workers were needed.

2. Fight for Better Working Conditions A significant objective of the Luddite movement was to improve working conditions. During the early stages of industrialization, workers were subjected to extremely harsh environments. Factories and mines were often poorly ventilated, and workers were exposed to dangerous machinery, resulting in frequent injuries and fatalities. The Luddites fought for safer working conditions and better treatment in factories and workshops.

3. Fight for Higher Wages One of the primary grievances of the Luddites was low wages. Workers were often paid very little for their labor, especially considering the long hours they were required to work. The Luddite protests sought to demand higher wages to reflect the value of their labor and the dangerous nature of their work.

4. Improvement of Social Services The Luddites also aimed to secure better social services for workers. Many workers were paid insufficient wages to cover basic needs, and they lacked access to healthcare, pensions, and other social safety nets. The Luddite movement pushed for better access to social services, such as medical care, pension schemes, and insurance, recognizing that these services were essential to protect workers, especially given the low wages and lack of job security in industrial settings.

5. Resistance to Exploitation The Luddites were reacting to the exploitation of workers in the rapidly growing industrial economy. They saw the capitalist class as using machines and low wages to maximize profit while exploiting the labor of working-class people. The Luddites sought to assert their rights and demand fair treatment in the workplace.

6. Protection of Skilled Labor The rise of mechanization also threatened the craftsmanship of skilled workers, and one of the objectives of the Luddite movement was to protect skilled trades and the artisan way of life. The Luddites feared that the use of machines would lead to the devaluation of skilled labor, rendering their expertise obsolete. Therefore, they fought to preserve their traditional crafts and the value they placed on skilled labor.

Factors that contributed to the failure of luddism

1. Failure to identify the true The members of luddism failed to identify their true enemy that is they could not distinguish between machines and the capitalists. The luddites believed that they were getting low wages because of the machines that are being introduced, yet the fact was due to the capitalists who wanted to maximize profits by giving the workers low wages.

2. Illiteracy. The members of luddism were not educated thus they did not present any program for reform because they lacked a clear ideology. Due to the absence of clear ideology, the movements lacked massive support for the people which later contributed to its decline.

3. The use of wrong methods. The methods used by luddites were wrong. The act of breaking machines did not gain any sympathy from employers or the government. The government was determined to use force to suppress the movement hence contributing to its failure.

4. Disunity The luddites were not united in the sense that some of the members preferred to use violent means that is destroying machines but some wanted to use peaceful methods that is engaging in dialogue with the employers for increased wages and better working conditions.

5. Absence of strong leadership. The movement lacked strong leadership because it was based on an imaginary figure called Ned Ludd. The absence of strong leadership made it difficult to unite all the workers and fight against one common enemy, the capitalists.

6. Inadequate funds. The movement faced the problem of inadequate funds thus it failed to run and coordinate its activities effectively in the struggle against the capitalists. It should be noted that the capitalists had a lot of resources at their disposal to sustain the struggle against the luddites.

7. Concentrated in urban areas. The movement was not large in scope; it concentrated in urban industrial centers thus as a result it lost massive support in the country side. This factor contributed tremendously to the decline of the movement.

8. Lack of consistency. The movement lacked consistency in the fight against the capitalist class. The movement was sporadic in its activities thus it failed to apply enough pressure against the capitalists thus contributing to its decline.

The significance or success of the Luddite movement in Britain

1. Development of more working class movements. It was an important catalyst in the development of working class movements in future, when luddism failed another movement known as Chartists was established which used some of the principles of luddism.

2. Unity of workers. The movement contributed to the unity of workers by bringing together different workers from different walks of life under one movement, luddism. It is this unity which later contributed to the formation of Chartism.

3. Achievement of some rights. The movement was able to achieve some rights for the workers; Example holidays and wages were slightly increased. There was prohibition of child labor in industries.

Chartism was a British working class movement of the 1830s named after peoples' charter which was drafted in London in 1838. It was a first typical working class movement and it was national in scope.

The movement came after industrial capitalism had efficiently developed and the workers had increased in number making their working conditions more horrible.

The factors that contributed to the rise of Chartism

The basic reasons for the rise of Chartism was industrial capitalism, however various factors can be identified that had contributed to the rise of the chartist movement.

1. The poor law amendment act of 1834 This was an amendment to the poor law that was passed in 1601 by Queen Elizabeth to deal with the poor people. In this law the British government was providing basic necessities to the aged and the infirm (crippled). The exploited workers were given what was called "doles" which were relief funds to supplement the low wages of the workers. However after the Anglo – French war of 1795, the parliament amended the act whereby the government would only assist the aged and the infirm and not the exploited workers.

2. Economic slump of 1837 – 1838. The economic foundation of Chartism was the economic depression of the late 1830s. This period was characterized by a decline in production which led to a rapid increase in prices and shortage of food. It also led to massive unemployment in Britain.

3. Collapse of the Grand National trade union. The Grand National trade union was formed by Robert Owen. Its main aim was to absorb all different trade unions and use general strike as a weapon to achieve the goals of the workers. This trade union was however crippled by the government by sentencing the leaders to jail. The collapse of the union meant that the workers remained without a movement to express their grievances, thus the formation of Chartism.

4. Disappointment with the reform bill. The reform bill which was introduced in 1831 in the parliament brought several changes. The parliament was divided into two categories, the House of Lords which consisted of dukes, bishops and king appointees and the House of Commons which consisted of members elected by the people according to the bill. For one to be elected he/she should have land and earning not less than 40 pounds per year, this law discriminated very many workers to be voted because they possessed nothing.

5. Increased in indirect taxes. During the Napoleonic wars, the national debt had risen to 902,000,000 million pounds in 1816. The obvious way to raise such amount of money was to increase income tax but this was abolished and indirect taxation was introduced whereby taxes were increased on common articles like tea, tobacco, paper and soap. Thus in reaction the workers formed the chartist movement.

6. The corn law of 1815. This was a law which was passed to protect the agriculture of the landlords against the post war slump. The law stipulated that there would be no importation of wheat. The intention of this law was to keep the prices artificially high in the interests of the landlords while neglecting the need for cheap food for the workers.

Tactics of Chartism

The workers used different tactics or techniques to fight for their rights during the chartist movement. These tactics included the following;

1. Petitions The movement used petition which involved persuading the parliament to accept its demands by organizing mass petitions for the implementations of their demands. In 1842, three million workers signed a petition but it was rejected by the parliament as the parliament was full of capitalists.

2. Campaigns These were done through cheap newspaper and mass political meetings. The leaders of the chartist movement organized big political meetings were they discussed all their problems thus making the people aware on what they were fighting for.

3. Strikes The biggest weapon of the workers was a strike; this is where the workers stopped production aiming at making losses to the employers in the attempt of forcing them to make changes.

Factors that contributed to the decline of Chartism

1. Revival of the economy One of the major factors that contributed to a decline of the chartist movement was economic depression of the late 1830s. During the 1850s, the economy was revived, trade increased and more people were employed. This prosperity made the workers to abandon the movement thus contributing to its decline.

2. Disunity Disunity between the leadership and their followers contributed significantly to the collapse of the chartist movement. The leadership and their followers could not agree whether or not to turn the movement into a full revolution and overthrow the government so as to set up the peoples' republic, some of the workers wanted to use peaceful means by negotiating with their employers.

3. Heavy hand of the government. The government contributed significantly to the decline of Chartism. It used troops and laws to suppress the movement, some of the leaders were imprisoned while others were killed thus causing a decline of the movement.

4. Hostility of the capitalists. The capitalists aimed at maximizing their profits and therefore were determined to suppress the movement. The capitalists were always suspicious about the intention of the working class thus they opposed whatever the workers were demanding.

5. Inadequate funds. Inadequate funds were one of the paramount causes for the decline of the chartist movement. The working class in Britain was always bankrupt thus it could not sustain strikes for a long period of time.

6. Lack of permanent members. Chartism faced the problem of absence of permanent members to support the movement. The organization had no clear regulation and principles to be followed by the members the members were free to join and leave the movement if they wished. The absence of permanent members had a big role to play in the fall of the chartist movement

Significance of the chartist movement

1. Cooperation The chartists movement cultivated the spirit of cooperation in the minds of the industrial workers as they joined together for a common course that is to fight against exploitation and oppression.

2. Formation of trade union The chartist movement laid the foundation for the formation of another working class movement which was the trade union. The movement demonstrated the importance of working class voice which contributed to the formation of trade union that built their principle and objectives on the failure of Chartism.

3. Development of democracy Due to the pressure mounted by the chartist, the government in Britain decided to give workers representation in the parliament. The owners were given equal opportunities like other people in political, economical and social affairs. Britain was among the first countries to practice real democracy.

4. Introduction of socialist ideology. The movement contributed to the introduction of socialist ideologies in Britain because it claimed that the exploitation and oppression of the workers was due to capitalism. The leaders of Chartism such as Robert Owen used the ideas of Karl Max to oppose capitalism.

5. Formation of the labor party. The chartist movement laid the foundation for the formation of a new independent labor party in Britain which later became a prominent political party. The spirit of unity introduced by Chartism was the one used to form labor party.

6. Awakened the workers. The movement awakened the workers by making them aware about the nature of capitalism, i.e. it is associated with exploitation and oppression of the workers. The leaders of Chartism argued that the workers were been exploited because the capitalists wanted to maximize profit by paying them low wages.

7. Attained some of the demands. Some of the demands of the chartist movement were achieved; Example the payment of the members of parliament, voting through secret ballot and the Corn Law was also abolished.

8. National in scope. The chartists movement remains in history as the first working class movement to be national in scope and revolutionary in character. It was also the first movement to use political means to fight for the rights of the workers.

The trade union is a workers association or institution that fights for increased wages and better working condition.

A trade union is a struggle institution because it consists of workers as a class fighting for improved working conditions.

These union came to be known as new model trade unions because they formed by skilled and professional workers. One of the examples of the trade unions in Britain was the Amalgamation society of engineer (ASE)

Tactics of trade unions

1. Collective bargaining This is where the trade unions bargained or negotiated with their employees so that their demands can be met. These demands included better wages, reduced working hours and better working conditions.

2. Use of strike The most powerful weapon of the trade unions is a strike. The workers believed that if they asked for the same thing and refused to work unless they get it, they would be in a good bargaining position with their employers.

Features of trade Unions

1. Skilled members Members of trade unions were skilled workers who formed a small population of the working force. Unskilled workers were entirely left out in these organizations.

2. National in scope Trade unions were national in scope because they combined all workers from different parts of the country; Example the Grand National trade union of spinners combined all spinners in Britain into one association.

3. Use of strikes Trade unions were characterized by the use of peaceful methods when demanding for their rights. They discouraged the use strikes without consent of all national members. A strike which is greatest weapon is used a last resort. The members of the trade unions were paid fees in order to sustain a long strike.

4. Proper leadership. Trade unions have regional or district officers and national headquarters with full time secretaries. They are also run by full time officials who are paid salaries. Trade unions also have a clear constitution.

5. Financially sound. The trade unions were financially sound due to reliable annual contributions made by the members. The fees paid enabled the trade unions to sustain a long strike thus putting pressure on the employers.

6. Economic well being of the workers. The trade unions centered on the economic well being of the workers, they demanded for better working conditions and improved wages for the workers.

The significance of trade unions in Britain

1. Introduction of unity The trade unions contributed to the introduction of unity and solidarity among the workers. There was an amalgamation of trade unions, the process made it easier by the trade union acts of 1964. Workers were drawn from different parts of the country.

2. Defended the rights of the workers. The trade unions protected and defended the rights of the workers; the workers were educated to make their labor expensive through common effort and unions against their employers. Standard salaries were set that enabled the workers to get basic needs.

3. Formation of a political party. The spirit of unity that was introduced by the trade unions contributed to the formation and consolidates political party for the workers, this party was known as Labor Representation Committee (LRC) which after the general elections of 1906 it became the labor party.

4. Fought for women's rights. The trade unions played a leading role in advancing the interests of women. The women had been subjected to exploitation and oppression in industries. Women trade unions were formed in textiles and tobacco industries. There was also a formation of the "women's trade union league".

5. Emergency of a class of skilled workers. The trade unions consisted of skilled workers from different sectors of the economy, this encouraged workers personal advancement so as to acquire more skills. The trade union membership in Britain had reached 53.4%.

6. Achievement of some rights. The trade unions managed to achieve some political and economic rights. The government in Britain reduced the working hours and passed a minimum wage for the workers. The workers were also fully represented in the parliament.

7. Promoted the culture of non violence. The trade unions were using non violent methods in advancing their interests, they depended on the use of collective bargaining were they negotiated with their employers for better wages and improved working conditions. They tried as much as possible to avoid the use of force.

8. Encouraged professionalism. The trade unions urged the workers to respect their professions. The unions set standard salaries that would enable the workers to meet their basic needs. Due to trade unions, the number of skilled workers increased in Britain while that of manual workers decreased.

British before undergoing political revolution had experience do various political war like the war of (hundred year's war) both France- Britain

The war of rose as the war fought between the Northern Kingdom of Lank shine and southern kingdoms

These two kingdoms symbolized by red rose for Northern kingdom and white rose for the southern kingdom of the war roses started 1455 to 1485

Historically the English revolution of 1648 to 1658 did not erupted like a thunderstorm, from a blue of rather it was gradual change which influenced by several historically factors include, Absolution adaptation of second under monarch government under King Henry VII king Henry VIII Edward man lad gray I, Queen may I, Queen Elizabeth, James I, Charles II and James

II had element of dictator-ship were state matter in England under such situation James

II abandoned Peaceful in 1688 and run to France, this Glorious revolution act it involved no blood shed.

There were 2 groups' categories of the English revolution which occurred in 1648

1. THE PURITAN REVOLUTION This was the kind of revolution which took place in 1648 being organized by the puritors led by Oliver Cromwell to overthrow the Tudor monarch government. Under the King Charles I the involvement blood shed King Charles I was assassinated publicity

2. THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION This was the religious revolution which took place 1680 being organized by the religious bodies which divined direct to be governed by king James II because he was not obeying Anglican church principle in high government with this situation James II abundance peacefully in 1688 with bloodshed

1. The Theory of Divine Right of Kings Kings believed they were appointed by God and were above the law, which led to tensions with Parliament and the people who demanded accountability and shared power.

2. Religious Conflict There were deep divisions between Protestants (especially Puritans) and Catholics. The monarchs' attempts to restore Catholic practices led to widespread resistance, especially among the Puritan middle class.

3. Royal Extravagance Kings such as Charles I misused state funds for personal luxury and wars, burdening the economy and increasing public resentment.

4. Dismissal of Parliament Monarchs repeatedly dissolved Parliament when it opposed their decisions, denying the people a voice in governance and increasing political instability.

5. The Role of Oliver Cromwell As a military and political leader of the Puritans, Cromwell played a central role in the defeat of royalist forces and the temporary establishment of a republic (the Commonwealth).

6. Feudal Conservatism The outdated feudal system hindered economic progress. The emerging capitalist class demanded reforms that would support industrial and commercial growth.

7. Influence of English Philosophers Thinkers like John Locke challenged the divine right of kings and promoted ideas of liberty, property rights, and governance through consent, which inspired revolutionary sentiment.

1. Rise of the Middle Class The revolution empowered the bourgeoisie (middle class), who became key promoters of trade, industry, and capitalist enterprises in the 18th and 19th centuries.

2. Religious and Personal Freedoms Citizens gained more religious freedom and personal liberties, allowing for greater participation in social and economic life without state interference.

3. Inspiration for Future Revolutions The English Revolution inspired other major democratic revolutions, such as the French and American revolutions, by demonstrating that people could challenge monarchy and establish new systems.

4. Introduction of a Unified Currency A single, national currency was established, which facilitated internal trade and the expansion of markets for manufactured goods.

5. End of Absolute Monarchy The revolution abolished absolute monarchy and established a constitutional monarchy governed by laws and human rights — a system more favorable to capitalist development.

6. Promotion of Free Trade Internal trade barriers and taxes were removed, encouraging the free flow of goods. Overseas trade also expanded, boosting Britain's capitalist economy.

1. Introduction of a Multiparty Political System The revolution led to the establishment of a multiparty political system, notably the formation of the Conservative and Liberal parties. This allowed citizens to choose leaders through elections, promoting democratic participation.

2. Emergence of Shared Governance The revolution, particularly under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, introduced the idea of power-sharing between the ruling government and the people. This reduced the dominance of the monarchy and laid the foundation for democratic governance.

3. Freedom of Worship The English Revolution expanded religious tolerance, allowing people to worship freely according to their beliefs. This was a significant move away from religious oppression under previous monarchs.

4. Respect for Human Rights The revolution emphasized the protection of individual rights and freedoms, which were often ignored under earlier monarchies, such as the Tudor rule. This respect for human rights became a key principle of modern democracy.

5. Establishment of a Constitutional Government The revolution resulted in the development of a realistic and practical constitution. Britain came to be governed by the rule of law, where all state affairs were conducted according to established legal frameworks.

6. Freedom of Debate and Expression Parliamentary powers were strengthened, and Parliament was recognized as the main institution for debating laws and passing legislation. This fostered an environment where open debate and freedom of expression were encouraged.

7. Spread of Democratic Ideas Abroad The success of the English Revolution inspired other nations, such as France, to pursue democratic change. The revolution became a model for the development of representative government and individual rights globally.

The French revolution can simple means the drastic political changes which was made by peasant and workers which were organized by Voltaura, Montesara, Fean Jacarc Rosseau, especially by 1789-1795 to over throw the Tudor Monarchy government under the king Lucas XVI due to its absolution and explanation system

French revolution was complete change in overthrowing existed government under King Louis XVI French revolution it was the one of the greatest events of human, history which deeply affected men's idea conduct for many generation within the period it six years eg 1789-1795

The French revolution which experienced in French. From 1789-1795 was organized by peasant and workers to overthrow the Boubon adlynast under King Louis XIV who were absolute and exploitative in character. Before they were living under despotic rule within rivalry and injustice they were landless and The problem of land, heavy taxes collection in French classified in the following group of people as follows:-

1. The Peasant Class (Third Estate) This was the largest and most oppressed group. Peasants worked the land but owned very little or none of it. They paid high taxes and feudal dues to both the nobility and the church, while receiving no political rights.

2. The Bourgeoisie (Middle Class) This group included merchants, lawyers, teachers, and other professionals. Though relatively wealthy, they were politically powerless and frustrated by their exclusion from high government positions and privileges enjoyed by the nobility.

3. The Nobility (Second Estate) This privileged class owned large estates and were exempt from most taxes. They held key government and military positions and maintained wealth at the expense of the lower classes.

4. The Clergy (First Estate) The Church held immense power and wealth. While some lower clergy sympathized with the poor, the upper clergy lived luxuriously and imposed tithes on the people, contributing to growing resentment.

1. Unfair System of Government France was ruled by an absolute monarchy where power was concentrated in the hands of the king. The vast majority of citizens, especially the Third Estate, had no political rights or representation.

2. Extravagance of the Monarchy King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette lived lavishly while the general population suffered poverty and hunger. This excessive spending strained the national treasury and angered the people.

3. Influence of Enlightenment Philosophers Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu criticized the monarchy, promoted individual freedoms, and advocated for equality, justice, and democratic governance.

4. Social and Economic Inequality Peasants and the bourgeoisie paid heavy direct and indirect taxes, while the nobility and clergy were mostly exempt. This created widespread resentment and a strong demand for change.

5. Inspiration from the American War of Independence The success of the American Revolution (1775–1783) encouraged the French people to challenge their own oppressive monarchy and fight for liberty and equality.

1. Abolition of Feudalism (August 4, 1789) The revolution dismantled the feudal system, freeing peasants from feudal dues and allowing land ownership, which was essential for capitalist development.

2. Industrialization The fall of the aristocracy and church power allowed for new capitalist leaders to invest in industries and promote economic modernization.

3. Emergence of Nationalism National unity and solidarity became driving forces in developing a strong and stable economy, which favored capitalist growth.

4. End of Monarchical and Church Control The execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette signaled the end of absolute rule. Their removal allowed new, capitalist-minded leaders to implement economic reforms.

5. Infrastructure Development Revolutionary governments invested in infrastructure, such as expanding roads and railways, which facilitated trade and industrial expansion.

6. Promotion of Free Enterprise and Trade Private business and trade were encouraged without feudal restrictions, increasing production and accelerating the growth of capitalism.

7. Agrarian Reform Subsistence agriculture was replaced with commercial farming, ensuring a steady supply of raw materials for industries and enhancing productivity.

1. Introduction of a Democratic Constitution The revolution introduced a new constitution that emphasized the role of citizens in electing their leaders and holding them accountable.

2. Promotion of Human Rights and Liberties The revolution upheld principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These values became foundational to modern democracy in France and around the world.

3. Shared Government and Political Participation Power was no longer limited to the monarchy or aristocracy. People from all social classes were given the right to express their opinions and participate in decision-making.

4. Freedom of Expression and Media The revolution supported freedom of the press and individual expression, encouraging transparency and public engagement in governance.

5. Strengthening of Nationalism and Civic Responsibility A strong sense of national identity emerged, promoting unity and active involvement in the democratic process for the betterment of the country.

The scientific revolution

The scientific revolution refers to a period that was characterized with major technological changes that took place in Europe which paved way for the industrial revolution consequently leading to the rise of capitalism. The revolution involved the use of mathematics, experimental methods and practical use of scientific knowledge. It is between 1540 - 1640 years.

The discoveries involved the following;

1. Contact Between Europe and Asia Through trade and exploration, Europe established contact with advanced Asian civilizations such as China, India, and the Middle East. This interaction allowed Europeans to learn and adapt technologies, especially in textile production, which Britain later improved upon.

2. Impact of the Crusades The Crusade wars opened channels for technological exchange. European countries were exposed to new knowledge and began pursuing technological innovation to access raw materials and markets independently, without relying on trade routes through the Middle East (especially around Turkey).

3. Discovery and Use of Coal and Iron The replacement of wind and water power with coal and iron revolutionized energy sources. These materials became essential in powering machines and enabling mass production in emerging industries.

4. European Exploration and the Discovery of New Lands European nations ventured across the globe in search of new territories. This Age of Exploration increased scientific curiosity and technological development, as new lands meant new resources and markets.

5. Invention of the Steam Engine (1770s) Invented by James Watt, the steam engine was a major breakthrough. It powered factories and machinery, enabling a shift from manual labor to mechanized production, which was a key aspect of the Industrial Revolution.

6. Improved Iron Production Techniques The use of coke in smelting iron allowed for faster and more efficient production. This innovation supported the expansion of industries that depended on metal tools and machinery.

7. Advancements in Textile Manufacturing New machines for weaving and spinning cotton and wool were developed. These improvements led to faster production, reduced costs, and the growth of modern textile industries.

8. Invention of the Railway Locomotive (1792) Richard Trevithick and later William Murdock contributed to the development of the railway locomotive, which revolutionized transportation by making the movement of raw materials and finished goods faster and cheaper.

The role of science and technology in the development of industrial revolution

1. Improved the transport The discovery of a railway improved the transport system which made it possible to transport large quantities of raw materials and manufactured goods. The good transport system stimulated industrial development.

2. Increased the level of production. The introduction of various machines in the production process reduced the dependence on manual labour. The use of machines increased production thus leading to the consolidation and expansion of the industrial revolution.

3. Development of internal trade. The increase in production of goods stimulated internal trade within Europe. The development of trade encouraged the establishment of more business thus consolidating and expanding industrial development.

4. Destruction of serfdom. The introduction of machines in the production process made many people in the countryside to leave to the towns searching for industrial jobs; this led to the decline of feudalism and consequently the rise of capitalism.

5. Collapse of cottage industries. The discovery of the steam engine contributed to the development of the factory system which employed thousands of workers. The factory system played a great role in the rise of capitalism; it replaced small cottage industries like windmills.

6. Rise of capitalist class The discovery of machines led to the rise of the capitalist class, which are people who owned the machines and factories. This class of entrepreneurs invested their money in industries to generate profits thus leading to the development of the industrial revolution.

7. Rise of free trade. The discovery of machines increased the production of industrial products which led to a decline of prices. The increase in production gave birth to a rise of free trade whereby surplus production was sold off to overseas markets without economic tariffs. The absence of trade restrictions contributed to the consolidation and expansion of the industrial revolution.