Element of literature

The form of a piece of writing is simply its structure, how it is built and organized.

• Literary forms are like the roots of the literary family tree.
• Genres are like the branches of the family tree.
• A genre is a specific style or category of writing.
• Genres make use of various literary forms.
• Forms and genres join with content to create the meaning of a piece of writing.

The setting is the context, i.e., the physical and social environment in which the story takes place.

• It is both geographical (where) and historical (when).
• Example: Hawa the Bus Driver is set in Dar es Salaam in the 1980s when people mainly used Usafi ri Dar es Salaam (UDA) for transport.
• The setting also refers to the social environment.
  • Is it a time of peace or war?
  • What are the traditions and beliefs of the society concerned?
• In longer works, the setting can often change.

This is the way a story is told—how one event leads to or causes another event, how characters interact with one another, and so on.

1. The plot of a story may be:
   • Straightforward
   • Episodic
   • Include flashback and flash-forward
2. At the heart of any plot, there must be a conflict of some kind; this is what makes people want to continue reading a story.
3. Generally, a conflict or incident increases the reader's desire to know the resolution of the conflict.

In a straightforward plot, events or incidents are arranged in chronological order—from the beginning to the end—through the following stages:

1. Beginning (Exposition)
   • The writer introduces the characters and setting by providing their descriptions and background and shows them in action.
   • The conflict is also introduced here.
2. Development (Rising Action or Complication)
   • Built during the story as the conflict becomes more critical.
   • Suspense grows as readers want to know how the conflict will be resolved.
3. Crisis or Highest Point (Climax)
   • The moment of greatest tension or excitement in a story.
   • The conflict reaches its peak.
4. Falling Action
   • The beginning of the resolution.
   • Happens as a result of the climax and shows that the story is drawing to a close.
5. Denouement (Resolution)
   • All challenges and conflicts are resolved.
   • The story ends.

The episodic plot

• Shifts focus in terms of setting (place and time), characters, and events.
• Example: Achebe's A Man of the People
  • The story moves forwards and backwards in presenting incidents and describing characters and their actions.

Characters are fictitious persons, animals, or inanimate objects created by the writer.

We learn about them through:

1. Names and appearance
2. Education and work
3. The way they dress and talk
4. Their ideas and actions
5. The problems they face and how they deal with them
6. What they learn as the story progresses

Characterisation refers to the author's ability to create appropriate characters that evoke emotional responses—love, hate, support, or opposition—from the reader.

Characters are most often human, but can also be:

1. Animals
2. Mythical creatures
3. Inanimate objects

Some characters:

• Dynamic: Change during the story
• Static: Do not grow or change

Types of characters

Protagonist:

• Main character
• Story's plot centers around this character
• Usually admired or sympathized with by readers
• Often the 'hero' of the story
• Examples: Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart, Dr Stockmann in An Enemy of the People

Antagonist:

• Obstructs the protagonist's cause
• The 'bad' character
• Example: Peter Stockmann in An Enemy of the People
• Conflict often lies between the protagonist and the antagonist

Flat character:

• One-dimensional
• Completely functional with limited insight into their life
• Often minor characters

Round character:

• Complex and multidimensional
• Insights into hopes, fears, dreams, and desires
• Often protagonists
• Usually dynamic and develop throughout the story

Refers to the writer's choice and use of words (diction) and use of figures of speech (figurative language)

Figurative language: Intended meaning differs from the literal meaning

Includes:

1. Metaphors
2. Similes
3. Hyperbole
4. Personification
5. Verbal irony
6. Oxymoron

Dialogue: Makes characters come alive

Tone:

How the theme is treated in the work

Influences how the reader feels about characters and events

Helps create the mood and gives life to the story

Can be:

1. Serious
2. Comical
3. Formal
4. Informal
5. Gloomy
6. Joyful
7. Sarcastic
8. Sentimental

Refers to how the writer puts the whole text together

Includes:

1. Language
2. Characters
3. Way of telling the story

Smaller elements of style

Title: Often reflects the general meaning of the work and invites the reader to engage with it

The elements of literature are present in every literary text

Essential for creating poems, plays, novels, and short stories

Literary devices are tools and techniques used to create specific effects

Examples:

1. Narrative techniques in prose
2. Dramatic techniques in drama
3. Figurative language in poetry

A summary of the elements of form and the devices used in different genres is presented in the following table.

Content refers to what the writer is talking about in the literary work. It has four components:

Theme

• The major idea explored in a literary work
• Often a universal idea that transcends culture, ethnicity, or language
• Represents a deeper meaning behind the events in the story
• Examples:
  • A Man of the People by Achebe – theme: corruption
  • Things Fall Apart – theme: disintegration of African communities due to colonisation
• A single work may treat more than one theme
• To determine the theme, consider:
  • Characterisation and conflicts
  • Symbols: something that stands for another thing
  • Motifs: recurring ideas or elements with symbolic significance
  • Issues the writer addresses, such as:
    • Love and relationships
    • Revenge
    • Justice
    • Betrayal
    • Jealousy
    • Forgiveness
    • Corruption
    • Nepotism

Conflict

Conflict is the heart of the story, a clash of two opposing forces that move the plot forward.

Forms of conflict:

1. Intra-personal conflict:
   • Occurs within a character's mind
   • Involves difficult personal choices
2. Inter-personal conflict:
   • Occurs between characters or groups of characters
3. Social conflict:
   • Occurs when a character or group is in conflict with society
   • Example: An Enemy of the People
4. Environmental conflict:
   • Involves conflict with natural forces
   • Examples: saving a community from floods, getting lost in the forest

Message

• What the writer wants readers to learn from the theme
• The main idea the writer is trying to express
• Questions to ask while reading:
  • What is the message behind this story?
  • What lessons can be learned?
  • What does the story mean?
• Note:
  • The message a reader gets may differ from what the author intended
  • Some writers, like Ibsen, avoid giving clear messages and focus on raising questions

Philosophy

• Refers to the author's worldview—how they see life
• Expressed through:
  • Plot
  • Character
  • Theme
  • Diction (choice and use of words)
  • Setting
• It reflects the author's position on issues
• Helps readers understand how the author addresses underlying social, economic, or political problems