Political Instability and Military Coups

Political instability has been one of the most significant impediments to development in post-colonial Africa. Between the 1960s and 1980s, more than 50 successful military coups were reported, along with 56 attempted coups. Military coups occurred in countries including:

• Ghana: 1966, 1972, 1978, 1979, 1981
• Nigeria: 1966, 1975, 1983, 1985
• Uganda: 1966, 1971, 1979
• Benin: 1963, 1965, 1967, 1969, 1972
• Burkina Faso: 2022 (recent resurgence of military rule)

The military often presented itself as the "rescuer" of the nation during economic crises, but military regimes typically focused on accumulating wealth rather than addressing development challenges. Political instability disrupted proper planning, prevented consistent policy implementation, and created uncertainty that discouraged foreign investment.

Worked Example: Nigeria experienced multiple military interventions following independence in 1960. The first military coup in January 1966 led to ethnic tensions between the Igbo and Hausa-Fulani communities, eventually escalating into the Biafran Civil War (1967-1970). This devastating conflict resulted in approximately one million deaths and destroyed much of the infrastructure that had been built since independence. The economic disruption caused by the war set back Nigeria's development significantly, as resources that could have been used for development were diverted to military purposes.

Ethnic Divisions and Problems of National Unity

African leaders inherited states created by European colonial powers that comprised diverse ethnic groups, regional interests, and religious differences. Colonial boundaries brought together peoples who would otherwise be separated and divided those who would otherwise be united. For example:

• The Ewe now live in Ghana, Togo, and Benin
• The Maasai are located in both Tanzania and Kenya
• The Luo are found in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda
• The Tutsi and Hutu are situated in both Rwanda and Burundi

Political parties formed during the nationalist struggle were mainly ethnic or regionally based organizations. After independence, these parties continued to operate as regional rather than national entities, leading to the allocation of resources to party strongholds and the appointment of people from particular regions to strategic positions. This practice undermined national unity and stability.

Worked Example: In Nigeria, the three main ethnic groups—the Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo—competed intensely for prominent positions in the post-colonial era. The perceived dominance of one group over another led to bitter civil war in 1966. Similarly, in Rwanda and Burundi, tensions between the Tutsi and Hutu led to devastating conflicts, including the 1994 genocide that resulted in approximately 800,000 deaths.

Authoritarian Regimes and Poor Governance

During the independence period, many African leaders moved towards autocratic rule, becoming intolerant of dissenting political views. They undermined governance structures left by colonialists and established single-party regimes:

• Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah pushed through a constitutional amendment in 1964 making Ghana a one-party state
• Tanzania: Under Nyerere, TANU became the only legal party
• Kenya: KANU dominated the political landscape
• Côte d'Ivoire: Houphouët-Boigny maintained tight control

These leaders viewed opposition as a threat to stability and an obstacle to development. The result was the suppression of political freedoms, concentration of power, and often the marginalization of minority groups.

Corruption and Mismanagement

Grand corruption and the mismanagement of public funds became key barriers to progress in post-colonial Africa. In many states, political power and economic gain became synonymous, with political leaders accumulating enormous personal wealth. Corruption took two main forms:

1. Grand Corruption: Involving large-scale public procurement contracts, embezzlement of public funds, and multinational corporations paying government leaders to secure business contracts. For example, General Sani Abacha of Nigeria was known to have embezzled millions of dollars of state funds.

2. Petty Corruption: Routine, low-level abuse of power where citizens and businesspeople encounter demands for bribes within state bureaucracies.

Corruption incapacitated governments from providing essential services and diverted resources meant for development projects.

Civil Wars and Armed Conflicts

Africa has experienced numerous civil wars that have devastated development efforts:

• Liberia (1989-2003): Two civil wars resulting in approximately 250,000 deaths
• Sierra Leone (1991-2002): A decade-long conflict with horrific human rights violations
• Democratic Republic of Congo (1990s-present): Conflicts in the mineral-rich eastern region have resulted in millions of deaths
• Mali (2012-present): Tuareg rebellion and jihadist insurgency destabilizing the Sahel region
• Algeria (1991-2002): Civil war between the government and Islamic Salvation Front

These conflicts resulted in massive deaths, property destruction, internal displacement, refugee crises, poverty, and the destruction of infrastructure and social services.

Unemployment and Underemployment

All African countries have faced serious employment problems, with young people being the greatest victims. Between 60 and 75 percent of the population of most African countries is young, and many remain unskilled and unemployed. This situation has created security and political challenges, with unemployed youth becoming potential recruits for armed conflicts and mob action during crises.

Neo-colonialism and Continued Foreign Influence

Despite political independence, European colonial powers continued to exert significant influence over the politics, economy, and culture of their former colonies. Neo-colonialism refers to the indirect political, economic, and social control of African nations by their former colonial overlords and other external powers.

Key manifestations of neo-colonialism include:

1. Economic Control: African economies remained structured to produce raw materials for Western industries and to serve as markets for finished goods. The prices of primary products fell while the cost of imported manufactured goods rose.

2. Foreign Investment: Multinational corporations continued to dominate key sectors of African economies, often securing favorable concessions and paying minimal taxes.

3. Financial Influence: Former colonial powers maintained significant influence through monetary arrangements. For example, most former French colonies remained tied to the CFA franc, which was pegged to the French franc.

4. Political Influence: Western powers often supported authoritarian regimes that served their geopolitical interests, even when these regimes violated human rights.

Worked Example: In Guinea, when Sekou Touré decided to reduce his country's ties with France significantly after independence in 1958, the French effectively destroyed the country's infrastructure. They uprooted railway lines, destroyed bridges, and evacuated all French civil servants, paralyzing the newly independent Guinea. France refused to allow Guinea access to the CFA franc, the common currency of former French colonies. Guinea nearly collapsed until Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana offered a £10 million loan to prevent this.

Foreign Debt and Structural Adjustment Programmes

In their efforts to provide essential services and develop capital projects, African leaders resorted to massive borrowing from abroad. By the 1970s and 1980s, many African countries faced severe economic crises, forcing them to seek assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The IMF imposed Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) as conditions for loans, which included:

• Currency devaluation
• Reduction of public spending on social services
• Privatization of state-owned enterprises
• Trade liberalization
• Reduction of barriers to foreign investment

One adverse effect of reducing social spending was a substantial decline in the provision of schools and hospitals, adversely affecting human development. SAPs also increased dependence on foreign aid and made African economies more vulnerable to external shocks.

Worked Example: Nigeria's SAP in the 1980s involved severe austerity measures that disproportionately affected the urban population. Students and workers protested against reduced medical and social services and cuts in educational expenditure, but the government pushed forward with reforms. While the SAP aimed to stabilize the economy, it created significant social hardship.

Cold War Interference

During the Cold War (1945-1991), Africa became a battleground for competing interests between the United States and the Soviet Union. Both superpowers supported regimes that served their strategic interests, often regardless of democratic credentials or human rights records. This interference:

• Prolonged conflicts by supplying weapons to opposing sides
• Supported authoritarian rulers who opposed communism or capitalism based on superpower preferences
• Undermined genuine independence by creating dependencies on foreign powers
• Diverted resources from development to military spending

Unfair Trade Terms

The international trading system created during the colonial period continued to disadvantage African countries. African economies were structured to produce and market one or two export crops or minerals, making them vulnerable to price fluctuations in global markets.

For example:

• Ghana's economy heavily depended on cocoa exports; when cocoa prices fell in the 1970s and 1980s, the economy nearly collapsed
• Ivory Coast faced similar challenges as a major cocoa exporter
• Countries dependent on mineral exports experienced boom-and-bust cycles

The World Trade Organization (WTO) established trade rules that favored developed economies, making it very difficult for African countries to secure favorable terms for their products.

Climate Change and Environmental Challenges

Environmental factors have also hindered Africa's development:

• Drought: The Sahel region experienced severe drought beginning in the late 1960s, causing massive crop and livestock losses. In Mauritania, approximately 1.6 million cattle were lost due to the 1968-1974 drought.

• Desertification: The expansion of the Sahara Desert affected agricultural productivity in Sahelian countries.

• Diseases: Tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever affected productivity. The AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and COVID-19 in 2020 further burdened African economies.

East Africa: Uganda Under Idi Amin

Uganda's development was severely affected by Idi Amin's regime (1971-1979), characterized by widespread repression, massacres, human rights violations, and severe economic decline. The economy collapsed as professionals fled the country, creating a brain drain that affected education, healthcare, and administration for decades.

West Africa: Nigeria's Oil Dependency

Nigeria's focus on oil extraction from the Niger Delta created new challenges:

• Profits accumulated to oil companies while local communities experienced poverty and pollution
• The neglect of agriculture led to reduced food self-sufficiency
• The country became vulnerable to oil price fluctuations in global markets

Southern Africa: Botswana's Success Story

Despite numerous challenges, Botswana provides an example of relatively successful development. Key factors in its success included:

• Good governance and strong political institutions
• Transparent management of diamond revenues
• Maintenance of pre-colonial cultural values emphasizing consensus-building
• Absence of ethnic conflict due to cultural homogeneity

However, even Botswana faced challenges, including inequality and the need to address issues of wealth distribution.

Internal Factors

• Political instability and military coups
• Ethnic divisions and national unity challenges
• Authoritarian regimes and poor governance
• Corruption and mismanagement
• Civil wars and armed conflicts
• Unemployment, especially among youth
• Population growth outpacing economic growth

External Factors

• Neo-colonialism and continued foreign economic control
• Heavy foreign debt and IMF/World Bank conditions
• Cold War interference and superpower competition
• Unfair international trade terms
• Climate change and environmental challenges
• Dependence on primary commodity exports

The development challenges faced by Africa since the 1960s resulted from a complex interaction of internal weaknesses and external pressures. Internally, political instability, ethnic divisions, corruption, and poor governance undermined development efforts. Externally, neo-colonial relationships, unfair trade terms, foreign debt, and Cold War politics constrained African agency. Understanding these factors helps explain why many African countries struggled to achieve their development potential and provides important lessons for addressing contemporary challenges.

The experiences of different African countries varied significantly. While some nations like Botswana achieved relatively successful development through good governance and prudent management of resources, others experienced prolonged instability and decline. The key lesson is that sustainable development requires addressing both internal governance challenges and external dependencies while building national capacity for self-reliant growth.

In Tanzania today, students can observe how these historical factors continue to affect their daily lives. For example, when a young entrepreneur in Dar es Salaam tries to start a small business, they may encounter bureaucratic delays requiring bribes (petty corruption), face competition from foreign companies with greater resources (neo-colonial economic structures), or struggle to secure reliable electricity or infrastructure due to limited public investment (consequence of past economic policies and debt burdens). Understanding these historical factors helps citizens demand better governance and recognize the importance of supporting locally-driven development initiatives that reduce Tanzania's dependence on foreign aid and investment.