African Reaction Against Imposition of Colonial Rule

There were two ways of reaction against imposition of colonial rule and these were:

1. Collaboration (alliance)
2. Resistance

1. The military structure and the strength of the society.
2. The nature of leadership i.e. strong or weak.
3. The nature of the colonialists i.e. aggressive or friendly.
4. The nature of exploitation and oppression made Africans to use collaboration or resistance.
5. The level of interference in social, political and economic interest made Africans to react or not.
6. The nature of population for example the size of the population, unity among the people etc.

Collaboration was a way of reacting against imposition of colonial rule whereby African societies cooperated with European invaders. African societies used the method to oppose colonial rule by welcoming or making cooperation with the colonialists against indigenous enemies and conducting treaties so as to get support and preserve their interests against their enemies.

The reasons why some African societies collaborated with colonialists

1. Poor/weak military power: Some societies had poor military power compared to the colonialists; therefore, they decided to cooperate with them in the opposing manner.
2. Poor leadership: Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists because they had poor or weak leaders who were not militant confident to fight against colonial rule.
3. To fight against their fellow Africans: Some African societies collaborated with colonial rule invaders so as to get assistance to fight their fellow enemies who were strong militarily. For example, Sangu, Bena and Yao collaborated with the Germans against Mkwawa of the Hehe.
4. To get military/weapon support: African societies collaborated with colonialists because they wanted to get strong military weapons to defend their territories i.e. Nambongo Mumia of Wanga and Kabaka Mutesa collaborated with the British to get strong arms.
5. Fear and to promote peace and harmony: Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists due to the desire of maintenance of peace and harmony and avoiding warfare.
6. Ignorance: Ignorance of some Africans especially rulers who did not understand the mission of colonialists through given gifts, fooled and persuaded them to sign bogus treaties. For example chief Mangungo of Msovero Kilosa signed a bogus treaty with Karl Peters. King Lobengula of Shona and Ndebele signed bogus treaties with John Moffat.
7. Natural problems such as calamities/disaster: Some societies in Africa suffered a lot with natural calamities such as drought, floods, hunger etc which made them weak politically hence collaborating with the colonialists to get relief or assistance. For example, the Maasai, the Chagga, the Kikuyu etc.
8. The role of missionaries: They played a great role to soften the African mind by preaching them to be humble and obedient to their masters; this lowered the African temper against colonial rule.

Resistance is the situation whereby Africans fought in order to oppose European invasion or colonial rule. OR it is the opposition against colonial rule or control.

There are two forms of resistance or reaction against colonial rule employed/applied by Africans, and these are:

1. Active resistance
2. Passive resistance

Active resistance

It is the form of resistance whereby Africans took arms to fight against colonial rule, or active resistance is the one which Africans wage war to oppose colonial rule by destroying European properties like farms, killing Europeans and so on. Examples of African societies, which applied active resistance against colonial systems, were Nyamwezi under Isike, Hehe under Mkwawa and Yao under Machemba.

Why some societies of Africa succeeded/were able to apply active resistance

1. Presence of strong/good leadership e.g. Samori Toure and Mkwawa.
2. Strong army.
3. Strong unity among the people.
4. Good war techniques.
5. Strong organizations/political systems.
6. Powerful socially and economically.

Passive resistance

It is the form of resistance whereby Africans did not take arms in opposing colonial rule or cooperating with colonialists.

Why some African societies applied passive resistance not active resistance

1. Poor weapons.
2. Absence of strong army; presence of weak army made some African societies to afraid to fight.
3. Weak leadership.
4. Poor unity among the people.
5. Presence of natural calamities for example floods, droughts.
6. Weak social and political organizations.

1. To defend social and political sovereignty: Many societies in Africa decided to resist colonial rule because colonialists wanted to interfere their social and political power. So African chiefs or leaders such as Mkwawa, Samori Toure and Kaberege etc took arms to fight against it.
2. Interference of trade: Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists interfered with African trade monopolies which made Africans harsh towards colonialists hence resistance.
3. Interference of cultures: Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule since colonialists wanted to interfere African culture such as religion, language etc.
4. Land alienation: Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists took African's land as a result Africans took arms to fight against this.
5. Forced labour: Many African societies decided to resist once against colonial rule since colonialists forced them to work by force without payment in colonial activities like farms, construction of Bomas etc. Examples of resistances were Majimaji, Nandi resistance, Chimurenga etc.
6. Introduction of taxation: Colonialists introduced different heavy taxes such as head tax, cattle tax, hut tax and matiti tax where Africans were forced to pay them as a result they resisted against the imposition of colonial rule.
7. Harsh rule: The colonialists were very brutal and harsh in ruling the Africans, many Africans were oppressed and killed.
8. Africans were not ready to be colonized: Africans resisted against the imposition of colonial rule because they were not ready to be colonized since they had their own system of governance and administration.
9. Beliefs of political and military strengths: African societies believed that they were powerful and strong in political and military as a result when colonialists came, they opposed them. For example, chief Machemba of Yao disobeyed German governor Wissmann because he believed in his military power.
10. Colonial social segregation and discrimination: Africans resisted against colonialists because Africans were segregated, oppressed and discriminated by them and treated as inferior in social, political and economic issues as a result Africans resisted them harshly.
11. Alliance/collaboration between traditional enemies with the colonialists.

There are two main types of resistance namely:

1. Small scale resistance
2. Large scale resistance

Small scale resistance

Small scale resistance is the type of resistance which fought for a short period of time over a small area or small group of people. Small scale resistance normally covered a small area fought on the basis of tribal lines occurred during penetration of colonialists i.e. the Nandi, Hehe, Nyamwezi etc. Small scale resistance was influenced by local rulers who organized their small groups of people to take arms against European invaders to defend their territories.

Examples of small-scale resistance

1. The Hehe resistance
2. The Nyamwezi resistance
3. The Yao resistance
4. The Bunyoro resistance
5. The Maasai
6. The Nandi resistance

The Hehe resistance

Hehe resistance was a small-scale resistance, which occurred in 1891-1898 fought against Germany under the leadership of Mkwawa. Or Hehe resistance was a small-scale resistance fought between the Hehe tribe against Germany in 1891-1898 under the leadership of Mkwawa.

Causes or reasons of Hehe resistance

1. Interference of Mkwawa's leadership: Germany wanted to control Mkwawa and forced him to accept German control due to that Mkwawa disagreed to accept German rule.
2. To protect political and economic interests.
3. Interference of culture: Germany interfered Hehe culture such as polygamy belief in many systems etc that made the Hehe under Mkwawa harsh hence fight against Germany.
4. Germany's harsh rule: Germany ruled Hehe very harsh not respectful to the Hehe, they forced them to pay tax, to work and took their land as a result the Hehe fought against the Germans.
5. Killing of the Mkwawa's delegates: Germany killed Mkwawa's delegates who were sent to compromise as a result Mkwawa revenged by killing German commander known as Emil von Zelewsky and 300 African soldiers as a result war started. The name Mkwawa means conqueror of lands.
6. Germany's occupation/control several areas in Tanganyika: Hehe under Mkwawa fought against the Germans because they wanted to control Ugogo, Uluguru, Usagara and Mpwapwa, which had economic importance to the Hehe.
7. Blocking trade routes: Hehe resistance against Germany occurred following Mkwawa blocking all German caravan routes passed his area, which disrupted the German trade hence conflicts started.

The Nandi resistance

Nandi resistance was a small-scale resistance fought between the Nandi tribe in Kenya against British in 1896-1905 following the British occupation or control over the Nandi's land. Or Nandi resistance was a small-scale resistance occurred in 1896-1905 when Nandi tribe in Kenya resisted against the British control over their land organized by a leader known as Koitalel and Orkolyot.

The reasons or causes of the Nandi resistance

1. Introduction of the railway lines along the Nandi land: Nandi resisted against British because British constructed a railway line on the Nandi land, which they defined on it for farming and livestock keeping.
2. Land problems or alienation: British took Nandi's best and fertile land and gave it to the white's settlements as a result the Nandi fought against them.
3. The Nandi's pride: The Nandi fought against the British because they believed that they were superior, strong and powerful socially, economically, politically, militarily and culturally hence did not want to be controlled.
4. The pressure from Kimnyoles prophecy: The Nandi decided to fight against the British because of the prophecy of the Kimnyole who foreseen the coming of foreigners on their land which made the Nandi to fight against the British after they arrived on their land.
5. The killing of the Nandi leader Koitalel: Nandi's resisted against the British following the killing of their leader known as Koitalel when he was called in the meeting of stopping the resistance.

The effect or impact of Nandi resistance

1. The death of people: Nandi resistance led to the massive loss of people's lives including leaders such as Koitalel, Orkolyot and other warriors.
2. British colonizing the Nandi land: The British defeated the Nandi during resistance as a result they took the Nandi land and made the Nandi to lose their sovereignty.
3. Destruction or damage of properties: The Nandi resistance led to the destroying of people's properties including land, railways, telegraph lines, killing of livestock, houses etc.
4. Hunger and famine: Nandi resistance led to the occurrence of hunger since resistance took many years and farms and cattle were killed during the fighting.
5. Migration of people: The Nandi resistance led to the restlessness of people because during and after the resistance people run away or migrated to other areas.
6. Land alienation: Nandi resistance led to many Nandi people to remain landless since after the resistance British took Nandi's fertile land.
7. Introduction of cheap labour: Nandi resistance led to the introduction of cheap labour, since those Nandi people had decided to be employed as cheap labourers to the British settler farms.
8. Over grazing of some area: Nandi resistance led to the environmental degradation since the area which the Nandi pushed or migrated were not enough for cattle grazing.

The Nyamwezi resistance 1891-1894

Nyamwezi resistance was a small-scale resistance against the German rule organized by Nyamwezi under their leader known as chief Isike in 1891-1894. The Nyamwezi resistance occurred as a result of Germans monopolization over Nyamwezi's trade and passed through their land such as Ujiji and Mwanza which broke their first good trade relation. The Nyamwezi started resistance under their leader chief Isike in 1891 in order to avoid the German control; but due to poor weapons the Germans attacked Isike's fort and destroyed it.

Reasons for the failure of Nyamwezi resistance

1. Absence of strong army.
2. Poor weapons.
3. Disunity among the people.
4. Poor fighting techniques.
5. Poor war organizations etc.

The Yao resistance

Yao resistance was small scale resistance which fought between the Yao against the Germans in 1890-1899 under the leadership of Chief Mwene Machemba. The Yao resistance was an active resistance since Machemba organized his people actively and was able to defeat three German companies sent to him. After Machemba defeated German companies, the German governor forced Machemba to leave his place, but he refused as a result German took up arms against Machemba and attacked Machemba's fort in 1899. Machemba managed to escape into Mozambique and left his fellow imprisoned as a result the Yao resistance failed hence German took control over the Yao's southern region of Tanganyika.

The causes of the Yao resistance

1. Interference of Yao's territory: The Germans wanted to control the Yao's territory which made Yao under Machemba to fight actively against it.
2. The conflict between Machemba and the Germans: Machemba defeated three German companies as a result Germans took up arms to fight.
3. Machemba's rejection to surrender: The Germans forced Machemba to surrender by leaving his place to the coast as a result Germans waged for the war.
4. Introduction of taxes: The taxes were very heavy and those failed to pay taxes were heavily punished.
5. Forced labor: The Germans forced Yao to work without or with low payment, as a result people took up arms against Germans.

Abushiri and Bwana Heri resistance (1888–1889)

1. Abushiri and Bwana Heri resistance was a small-scale resistance which occurred along the coastal region of Tanganyika.
2. Rich Arabs and local traders organized to fight against the British and the German interference on their trade in 1888–1889.

Large scale resistance in Africa

1. It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule.
2. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the French.
3. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance.
4. People such as the Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance.
5. Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first, were persuaded to rebel against the Europeans later.
6. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion.
7. Example: The Maji-Maji Rising of 1905–1907 in Tanzania.

Maji-Maji resistance (1905–1907)

1. The Maji-Maji resistance broke out in southern Tanganyika against German control.
2. This is a large and popular African uprising in Africa.
3. The term "Maji-Maji" is derived from the Swahili word "Maji", which means water.
4. Maji-Maji was magic water drawn from the Rufiji River and mixed with maize and millet flour.
5. After mixing, the water was thrown on various fighters to protect them from German bullets in war.
6. The leader of the Maji-Maji uprising was Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in southern Tanganyika.
7. He organized his followers and began to fight in July 1905, ending in 1907.
8. The Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms.
9. The Maji-Maji uprising was highly mobilized, and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against German rule in Tanganyika.

Causes of Maji-Maji resistance

1. The German government in 1902 ordered the forced cotton growing. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide free labour, they also worked under inhuman conditions.
2. Forced labor was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway construction as well as settler farms, Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman.
3. The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by the Germans. The taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about three rupees.
4. The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs and practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African witchcraft.
5. The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.
6. African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood by submitting to the Germans. Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German mercenaries and their house boys.
7. The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces.
8. The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an effective leader with ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders.

Causes for African defeat

1. Poor weapons: Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.
2. German support: The Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively.
3. Lack of military communication infrastructures: The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances.
4. Failure of magic water: Failure of magic water 'Maji-Maji' to turn German bullets into water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.
5. Small coverage area: The Maji-Maji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African forces.
6. Scorched-earth policy: The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property thus famine caused deaths among the African fighters since many of them were starving.

Impacts of Maji-Maji resistance

1. Administrative reforms: The Maji-Maji resistance made German's ruler to reform their administration so as to avoid another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans.
2. Unity of African communities: It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo, Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders.
3. Destruction of properties: It led to the destruction of properties since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy, which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces.
4. Loss of lives: A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75,000 and 120,000 Africans were killed by the German forces, including their leaders and soldiers, while other people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated.
5. Famine: The Maji-Maji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga funga period among the people of southeastern Tanganyika.
6. Displacement: The Maji-Maji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African communities.
7. Foundation for nationalism: The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic differences.

Reaction to French invasion of Senegambia

1. French military conquests in West Africa were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea, then under Samori Toure.
2. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger.
3. The French had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in:
   • Palm oil
   • Groundnuts
   • Gold from the interior

Reaction to French invasion of Guinea (Samori Toure)

1. Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest.
2. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French.
3. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was, in itself, a victory.
4. This victory can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life.

Why Samori Toure fought against the French (1891-1898)

1. The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.
2. Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.
3. Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure.
4. The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas, which they claimed belonged to them.
5. Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

Reasons as to why Samori Toure managed to contain (fight) the French forces for so long

1. Strong army: Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence cases to help the permanent army.
2. Modern weapons: Samori Toure had access to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time. He also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.
3. Wealth from trade: Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and kola nuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.
4. Military experience: Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the army.
5. Determination: He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.
6. State control of agriculture: Samori Toure established state control of agriculture and markets to ensure regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.
7. Guerrilla tactics: The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and night raids. This helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control.
8. Scorched earth technique: He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

Why Samori Toure was finally defeated

1. Anglo-French conspiracy: Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori's armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori's access to arms supplies. In the same year British forces occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.
2. Shortage of military weapons: Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.
3. Disunity among rulers: The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with Ahmed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.
4. Disciplined and well-organized army: A disciplined and well-organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better-trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus, the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques could never be defeated by warfare.
5. European determination: The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.
6. Instability and public misery: Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness, which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed, animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.
7. Lack of support from communities: The non-Mandinka communities and non-Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

Chimurenga Uprising 1896-1897

The Mashona-Matebele (Chimurenga) Uprising in Zimbabwe (1896-1897). The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890. They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi.

The causes of the uprising

1. Land expropriation: The B.S.A.C. and the whites confiscated and gave the white settlers the better, more fertile land of the Mashona without consulting the local chiefs, for formerly land was considered the property of the community, and it was the chiefs' duty to distribute lands. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves of the Shangani and Gwani, which had water shortages and were infested with tsetse flies respectively. Worse still, the Ndebele's population was too high to inhabit this barren land.
2. Forced labour: The prevalent policy of the whites was to compel Africans in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland to supply labour. The commissioner in each district was given power to compel chiefs to offer labourers in mineral and farm circles. All able-bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the society. This was done against their will. Labourers were recruited by armed forces or by police who went around into villages to seize people by force.
3. Harsh treatment: The 1893 Mashonaland and Matebeleland situation was as Sir Martin Richard I, the resident commissioner, said: "The system was no better than slavery." The employers and native commissioners used the Sjambok, a kind of whip, to mistreat the local people. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.
4. Taxation policies: In 1894, the Hut Tax was introduced. Some of the Shona chiefs and their subjects refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as the British technique of collecting taxes. There were also cases of officials' grabbing cattle, goats, and grains from the people who could not manage to pay taxes.
5. Low wages: Because the Africans were subjected to forced labour in mines and on white farms, while they were lowly paid as return for their toil under atrocious conditions.
6. The abolition of induna age regiments among the Matebele: The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Military towns were outlawed and the Ndunas were deprived their power, importance and position.
7. Favoritism: The colonial government elevated injustices in both the Shona and Ndebele societies. There was very little justice bestowed on the African people. Most often, the colonial government gave positions of responsibility to people who were untrained, unsuited, and unaccepted by the people.
8. Loss of cattle: Cattle were the backbone of people's livelihood. It is believed that Lobengula possessed 250,000 cattle before his death. The Ndebele were only permitted to keep 40,930 out of the total number, and many of them were offered to the volunteers or to the B.S.A.C. The others were dispatched to South Africa. Worse still, there was a rinderpest outbreak in 1895 killed nearly two million cattle. On a sadder note, it was portrayed that some animals were shot dead on the command of the white man. Due to this grievance and others, war was unavoidable.
9. Rinderpest calamities in association with the white man's presence: The rinderpest epidemics and swarm of locusts that invaded had dismantled food crops. Traditional religious leaders said that the rinderpest occurred due to the presence of the white men.
10. Missionaries disregarded the traditions and customs of the Shona-Ndebele people: It has been argued "the missionaries failed to understand the attachment the Shona had for their traditional religion and their own form of government". In Matebeleland, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to alter their culture, ignoring especially their religion based on the Mwari cult. That was the reason probably why the mission stations were attacked during the uprising.
11. Desire for their lost independence: It encouraged hostility on the part of the Ndebele to dismantle their monarchy. The Ndebele people resisted in the hope of repossessing their lost independence.

Consequences of the Chimurenga Uprising

1. The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.
2. The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity. The company administration received much criticism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.
3. The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.
4. The Ndebele indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.
5. Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.
6. Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.
7. Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the white man.
8. Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.
9. The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.
10. The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

The Nama and Herero Uprising 1904-1907 (Namibia)

The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880s and 1890s. Three main ethnic groups inhabited the region; the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture.

Causes of Nama and Herero uprising

1. The imposition of forced labor in 1896: Germans wanted laborers to work in plantations and in the construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The African communities, that is, Nama and Herero were not used to the manual labor hence resisted to work.
2. Cattle raiding: The German traders and settlers did another reason for Nama and Herero uprising was the cattle raiding that frequently occurred. But cattle was the most treasured commodity among the Herero and Nama communities, robbing of cattle threatened the economic interest of these African communities.
3. Land alienation: This included grabbing much of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. The German government reserved the fertile land for settler settlement. The Nama and Herero depended on this land for cultivation and pasture; they were thrown out of this fertile land to give room for construction of railway and roads. This in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.
4. Imposition of taxes: The Germans imposed taxes that had to be paid by Africans. They began to demand taxes in 1896. In order to make effective collection of taxes, Germans used force. But the African communities like the Eastern Herero and Mbanderu, resisted by taking up arms against Germans.
5. The destruction of traditional authority: After they had established their control over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example, they imposed some policies without consulting the traditional chiefs from African communities. On the other hand, the Germans did not recognize the traditional rulers hence considered them as illiterate. Having been discontented with this situation, the Nama and Herero decided to resist against Germans so as to restore their traditional practice and their independence.
6. The outbreak of Rinderpest disease: It killed about ninety percent (90%) of Nama and Herero's cattle in 1903. This affected their economy, and many sold their idle land to German settlers to sustain their life.
7. The German control over the religious beliefs: The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious leaders like chief Witbooi. When their beliefs were threatened by the Germans, Chief Witbooi organized and motivated his subjects to resist against the Germans since he believed that his army would defeat the Germans.
8. Morenga succeeded the Nama leadership, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon Cooper who continued the resistance until 1907 though the Germans reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero.

The effects of the Nama Herero uprising

1. The Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable them to live in a conducive environment and good life.
2. The African communities, such as the Herero lost their life, only 16,000 Herero survived out of previous population of 80,000. Whereas only 9,800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20,000 people who survived in 1892.
3. The chief township in Namibia was officially abolished by the German government. There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example, up to 1903 the number of Germans was about 4,640 but after the war, the number increased up to 14,840 in 1913.
4. Namibia became a German colony and the German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had very minimal effect compared to that of Maji-Maji in Tanganyika.
5. The German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour.
6. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then, the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon Cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the Germans reasserted their control.
7. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the first World War.

Economic causes

1. Land alienation: Whereby the colonialists took Africans arable fertile land and they became landless. The land was the major livelihood of African it was grabbed from them and distributed to the white settlers and colonial state plantations as to reduce the African to mere suppliers of cheap labour to the colonial plantations.
2. Imposition of taxation by the colonialists: From the 1898 head tax was levied on all adult Africans in the colony of Tanganyika, at least 1 year or its equivalent this amounted to at least a month's wage on white-owned mine or two months or more on the white-owned farm.
3. Cattle confiscation: To break the backbone of African economy and to be forced to integrate into capitalist economy. The African societies who were pastoralists that depended much on the cattle for their livelihood, people like the Herero, Masai, Sukuma, their cattle were confiscated.
4. Forced labor and forced cropping: Africans were forced to produce cash crops and also forced to provide cheap labour.
5. Provision of low wages: Low wages of Africans who worked on European farms, mines and offices. The major aim was to break the self-sufficiency African rural economy.

Political causes

1. African local rulers were thrown from their administration and lost control of their people and independence in general whereby the colonialists established the notorious colonial rule. Thus, resistance to the colonial rule.
2. Africans lost their control over their trade that they controlled and benefited from. The colonialists established the so called 'legitimate trade' which isolated the African traders, like Abushiri and Bwana Heri who lost control of trade at the coast, Jaja of Opobo, the Mandika Samori all these resisted as to regain their trade control.
3. Destruction of African agriculture: Which led to the problem of hunger and famine. The colonialists opened cash crop plantations hence resistance.

Colonial injustice and oppression

1. Corporal punishment like caning of the lazy Africans.
2. Destruction of African culture and introduction of western culture.
3. Racism and segregation of Africans.
4. Intimidation and violence to the Africans.

1. To regain independence and their sovereignty this had been taken away by colonialists.
2. To maintain peace and order in their society which they had experienced before the coming of colonialists.
3. To pursue and maintain African freedom which prevailed before the coming of colonizers.
4. To retain Africa self-sustaining economy which was based on subsistence agriculture.
5. To fight and get rid of foreign domination of Europeans to make them go back to their home countries.
6. To avoid humiliation and subjugation by the foreigners.
7. To fight against land alienation and cattle confiscation.
8. To establish African trade - slave trade and the so-called legitimate trade had overthrown this.